17-Political change

Napoleon's Consolidation of Power

Initial Challenges and Consolidation Efforts

  • 24 Dec 1800: An assassination attempt on Napoleon (infernal machine bomb plot) demonstrated the fragility of his position.

    • 52 people killed or wounded.

    • Highlighted the need for stronger consolidation of power.

Plebiscite of 1800

  • Ratified the Constitution of Year VIII; provided Napoleon with a democratic façade.

    • Turnout: 25% (~1.5 million voters).

    • Adjusted by Lucien Bonaparte, Minister of the Interior, to suggest 46% turnout with overwhelming support.

Monarchical Behavior

  • Post-1800, Napoleon acted as a monarch without formally declaring it:

    • Moved into the Tuileries Palace.

    • Minted coins with his image.

    • Hosted state banquets and presided over the Council of State.

Repression of Opponents

  • Jacobins: Targeted for their radicalism.

    • 129 leaders arrested and deported in 1801; civil servants dismissed.

  • Royalists: Suppressed through military tribunals and arrests.

    • 1800 Brittany revolts: 6,000 prisoners taken; 750 shot.

    • duc d’Enghien's execution (1804): Accused of conspiring with émigrés and executed, reducing royalist activity.

  • Liberals: Controlled through press censorship and exile.

    • E.g., Madame de Staël and Benjamin Constant banished 64 km from Paris in 1803.

Reconciliation Efforts

  • Generous amnesty to western rebels.

  • Assured protection of Catholicism to win royalist support.

  • Secured bourgeois loyalty by guaranteeing the property rights of purchasers of biens nationaux.

  • Promoted 'amalgame' (ending social divisions) and 'ralliement' (uniting factions under his regime).

Consul for Life (1802)

  • Senate granted Napoleon the title of Consul for Life with hereditary succession.

    • Constitution of Year X formalized this.

    • Plebiscite turnout: 50.5%; of those, 99.76% supported Napoleon.

The Establishment of Emperor Status

  • 1804: Napoleon declared Emperor of the French (Constitution of Year XII).

    • Cited "pressure of public opinion" and the need for stability.

    • Plebiscite turnout: 47.2%; of those, 99.93% supported.

  • 2 Dec 1804: Napoleon crowned Emperor in Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris.

    • Paid Pope Pius VII to officiate but crowned himself, emphasizing his authority.

    • Josephine crowned as Empress.

  • 26 May 1805: Crowned King of Italy in Milan Cathedral.

Constitutional Developments

Manipulation of Institutions

  • Early Actions (1801): Napoleon blocked Tribunate and Legislative Body using senatus consultum (Senate decrees).

  • Purges of 1802:

    • Removed 20 members from the Tribunate and 60 from the Legislative Body.

    • Split Tribunate into three sections to dilute opposition.

    • Changed voting qualifications to favor wealthy notables.

Further Changes

  • 1810: Tribunate abolished.

  • 1813: Final meeting of the Legislative Body.

  • 1815: Radical constitutional changes attempted to retain power during political decline.

Reliance on the Senate

  • Found the Senate a useful ally:

    • Increased its membership with his supporters.

    • Used it to bypass legislative opposition through senatus consultum.