Internationalism and International Organizations
International Movements I: Socialism, Trade Unions, Women's Rights and the Peace Movement
Internationalism and International Organizations
Ideas promoting reform and envisioning a better world transcended national borders to address common issues.
International Organizations (IOs) play a pivotal role in creating both international society and global consciousness as discussed by Iriye.
However, IOs and movements have been criticized for being exclusionary and divided by several factors, including:
Class
Gender
Race
Generation
Ideology
Culture
Historical experience and context
Many of these organizations reinforce Western ideologies and narratives, thereby exacerbating global divisions, particularly between the Global North/West and the Global South.
The interactions between different international movements often reveal overlaps and conflicts.
While championing certain nations, IOs and movements have also upheld nationalistic sentiments.
Source: Data in Leila Rupp, ‘The Making of International Women’s Organizations’, p. 208.
Provenance: Conditions of the Working Class
Discusses the conditions faced by the working class, highlighting key texts such as:
Engels, The Conditions of the English Working Class (1845) - This work delineates the dire conditions experienced by the labor force during the 19th century.
Marx, Capital: A critique of political economy (1867-1883) - A comprehensive critique illustrating how capitalism exploits labor and leads to social inequalities.
Golden Age of Socialism (1889-1939)
Socialism identified as the first form of internationalism.
The First International:
Closely associated with Marxism and revolutionary ideals.
It incited opposition from conservative sectors intent on maintaining the status quo.
Second International (1889-1916):
Constituted political parties that served elite interests, leading to nation-specific socialist associations.
Example: Maison du Peuple, Brussels, as a hub for socialist activities.
Socialism in Action
The movement saw the organization of frequent gatherings and the introduction of:
Workers’ Day advocating for reforms such as:
An 8-hour workday
Pensions
Votes for women
Women’s Day introduced in the US in 1909 and soon gained traction in Europe.
The socialist agenda was inherently anti-capitalist.
The movement highlighted a division between reformers advocating gradual change and revolutionaries seeking more radical transformations.
Highlight: National Women’s Day Demonstration, New York City, 1909.
Overlap and Tensions between Trade Unions and International Socialism
The late 19th century saw the establishment of socialist parties in Europe (1880s).
These movements often perceived states as serving elite interests, with workers facing exclusion and exploitation.
Varied strands of socialism emerged, with differing goals:
Some sought to abolish the state completely.
Others favored gradual reforms and the promotion of world citizenship.
Trade Unions were focused on practical reforms such as:
An 8-hour workday
The right to strike
Limitations on migration
Unlike socialist movements, Trade Unions often identified with specific nations or trades.
Initial collaboration among Trade Unions aimed at learning and mutual support.
Growth of Trade Unions
Major milestones in the formation of trade unions include:
Trade Union Congress, UK: Established in the 1860s.
National Labour Union, US: Initiated in 1866.
Knights of Labor, US: Founded in 1869.
Amalgamated Society of Woodworkers, South Africa: Formed in 1881.
Toronto Trades and Labour Council, Canada: Established in 1883.
Various other international unions were formed up to 1914.
By 1914, union membership levels varied significantly:
Between 10% to 25% of workers were union members, predominantly skilled laborers.
Example: Garment Workers’ Strike, 1913, New York highlighted the struggle for labor rights.
Working Class and the Start of WWI
Jean Jaurès, a prominent French socialist leader in 1913, indicated that many in the working class supported the war, driven by patriotism and nationalism.
Jaurès advocated for workers and socialists to strive for peace, urging diplomatic solutions and the proposition of a general strike to avert war.
His assassination by a French nationalist typifies the tensions of the era.
Shaping the Peace: The Creation of the International Labor Organization (ILO)
The International Secretariat of National Trade Unions actively lobbied to shape post-war peace.
Key reforms advocated included:
Introduction of a 10-hour workday
Social insurance
Health and safety measures
Equal rights
International factory inspections
The ILO was established in 1919, with Albert Thomas as its first director.
Further information about ILO recommendations can be referenced at [ILO Official Website](http://www.ilo.ch/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:12010:::N O:::).
Third International
Established in 1919 with a communist foundation.
Proposed 21 Conditions for association, including:
Attacking the concept of patriotism.
Fighting against colonialism.
Avoiding participation in the electoral process.
The organization further included sections dedicated to youth, sports, trade unions, and women.
Fourth International
Founded by Leon Trotsky in 1938, after being exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929.
It attracted members who were disillusioned by the Third International and the policies of Stalin.
The inaugural meeting included 26 delegates from 11 organizations, mainly active in the US and Mexico.
Notable artistic representation: mural by Diego Rivera.
Trade Unions and Anti-Colonialism
Early unions within colonies often restricted membership to European and white workers, particularly those building infrastructure such as railways.
African railway workers and government employees were among the first to unionize.
There was a lack of solidarity within the labor movements:
Strikes initiated by European workers often excluded African workers.
European factions intervened to break strikes initiated by African unions.
The labor movement's connection to anti-colonialism emphasized a united front against exploitation and racial discrimination:
Joshi founded the All India Trade Union Congress.
Partial List of Early Unions
Key unions established include:
Amalgamated Society of Woodworkers, South Africa: 1881 (exclusive to British workers)
Cigarette Workers, Egypt: 1899 (French and Egyptian)
Typographical Union, South Africa: pre-WWI (mixed race)
Madras Labour Union, India: 1918 (African)
Various other unions formed across regions including the Belgian Congo, Ghana, and Gambia.
Peace Movement
There was notable overlap between peace movements and the trade union movement.
Key figures included:
William Randal Cremer: Established the Workingman’s Peace Committee, advocating arbitration and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1903.
Frédéric Passy: A French MP promoting disarmament and arbitration, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901.
The International Parliamentary Conference held in 1889 encouraged nations to resolve conflicts through arbitration.
Peace Groups
A variety of peace organizations emerged during this period, such as:
Workingman’s Peace Association: 1870
German Peace Society: 1892
Interparliamentary Union: 1899
National Peace Council: 1909
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: 1910
Fellowship of Reconciliation: 1914
Women’s Peace Party: 1915
Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom: 1915
American Friends Service Committee: 1917
Peace Congresses, The Hague, 1899 and 1907
Initiated by Tsar Nicholas II calling for disarmament and arbitration, but met with skepticism from governments.
Notable outcomes included a Code for Laws and Customs of War, albeit lacking authoritative enforcement powers and the establishment of a Permanent Court of Arbitration.
Critics viewed the peace efforts as utopian, questioning who truly had the right to peace.
Universal Peace Congress, Stockholm 1910
Aimed to define a universal code of peace, asserting that wars can only be justified for self-defense.
Declared an end to imperial conquest without outright denouncing imperialism, set against an arms race backdrop and deteriorating international relations.
Peace and War
The establishment of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 intended to honor efforts toward global peace, primarily awarded to elite figures from European and American backgrounds, including heads of government.
Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF)
Women historically marginalized in peace discussions, with resolutions in 1915 condemning the war and advocating for peace as a means to terminate human suffering.
Proposed approaches included:
Peace rooted in justice.
Arbitration as a conflict resolution tool.
Education for children promoting peaceful mindsets.
Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles, 1919
The Treaty of Versailles marked the peace agreement with Germany, entailing several punitive measures, such as:
Demilitarization of the Rhineland and occupation of Saar
Limitation of the German army to 100,000 personnel
Imposition of reparations, including the controversial Article 231, also known as the war guilt clause.
This led to significant resentment within Germany and broader criticism of the treaty's terms.
Peacemaking in the 1920s
Various groups began deliberating international affairs during the 1920s, leading to initiatives such as:
The Washington Naval Conference (1921-22) emphasizing disarmament.
The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), which renounced war unless for self-defense, signed by 65 nations.
Women’s Movement
A series of international women’s organizations emerged, including:
World Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 1883
International Council of Women, 1888
International Women’s Suffrage Alliance, 1904
International Socialist Women’s Committee, 1907
Various other organizations that sought to advance women's rights globally in the subsequent decades.
Divergence and Proliferation
The International Council of Women was formed in 1888 under the leadership of Lady Aberdeen, focusing on general organization rather than political issues.
The suffrage movement proved divisive among participants, expanding issues addressed to include:
Right to work
Equal pay
The impact of violence
Timeline of Women's Suffrage:
1893 New Zealand
1902 Australia (not for Indigenous Australians)
1918 Germany, Poland, Austria, etc.
This timeline demonstrates the gradual realization of women's voting rights across various nations, often with significant caveats.
Paris Peace Conference Again
The Siegel reading delves into various intricate details.
The Inter-Allied Women’s Conference (1919) highlighted the call for women’s rights as crucial for peace; proposals included the formation of a Women's Commission similar to the ILO, which was ultimately not approved amid nationalistic rebuttals.
The 1920s and Flappers
Addressed issues related to women's rights, including:
The right to work
Control over reproductive rights and personal bodies.
Exclusion: A Feminist World System
Membership within Western-based women’s groups was often dominated by elite, white, older members, leading to an orientalized view of women from the Global South.
Various women’s groups emerged in the Global South, including:
Pan American Association for the Advancement of Women (1922)
Egyptian Feminist Movement (1923)
Congress of Oriental Women meetings across Syria (1930) and Lebanon (1932).
Leaders of Women's Movements
Notable figures include:
The Egyptian Delegates at the Geneva Conference in 1920.
Baroness Ishimoto Shadzue Kato, who played a significant role in women's advocacy.
Huda Sha'arawi who contributed substantially to the women’s rights movement at the 1923 women's conference.