Comprehensive Study Guide: History of Applied Arts and Design

Composition and Early Origins of Glass

The composition of glass involves four primary components: a glazing element (silicon in the form of sand), a flux (soda or potash used to lower the melting point), a stabilizer (lead oxide or lime), and an optional purifying agent. In Flanders, the prehistory of glass is sporadically distributed, while Wallonia hosts two dedicated museums.

From approximately $1500\,B.C.$ until the beginning of the common era, sand-core glass was the dominant production method. This involved modeling a core or plug of clay around the end of a ceramic rod, then winding viscous, syrupy glass around it until the core was covered. Sometimes, colored glass threads were added in zigzag or feather patterns. Characteristic colors included opaque blue, green, or milk-white, with objects primarily being small ointment and oil bottles.

The Roman Revolution and Early Medieval Transitions

During the second half of the $1^{st}$ century in Syria and Palestine, free-blown glass (Roman glass) was invented. This technique used a hollow tube to pick up a portion of glass and blow it out, enabling large-scale production. Roman glass was typically blue-green to olive-colored due to iron salts, though luxury vessels were intentionally decolored. Common objects included bottles, jugs, and vases. To produce consistent series, molds were introduced, resulting in square or circular shapes for easy stacking. Decorative techniques included engraving, grinding, enamel painting, gold leaf sandwiched between glass plates, and glass mosaics.

By the end of the $3^{rd}$ and into the $4^{th}$ century in Central Europe, "Wood Glass" (Woudglas) emerged. This period saw a decrease in quality because potash (from beech leaf ash) replaced soda (from sea plant ash) as a flux. This type of glass was characterized by a green-to-brown tint and the presence of air bubbles.

Renaissance Glass and the Venetian Influence

In the $13^{th}$ and $14^{th}$ centuries, Venice (specifically the island of Murano) became the global center for glassmaking after glassblowers from the former Byzantine Empire settled there. They reintroduced manganese decoloring from antiquity and purified raw materials to create colorless glass known as "cristallo." Over time, this glass was blown increasingly thin. Venetian glass was often colorless and decorated with glass beads, rosettes, and gold-highlighted images. Because Murano's recipes were strictly protected, it only spread throughout Europe during the Renaissance.

Starting in $1537$ in Antwerp, "Façon de Venise" (Venetian-style) glass was produced, lasting until the $17^{th}$ century. To mimic Murano quality, soda was imported from the Mediterranean. This glass is often indistinguishable from Murano originals, featuring bizarre shapes, white or colored glass thread decorations (filigrana technique), masks with applied gold, and Antwerp-specific studs with colored pearls. In the second half of the $17^{th}$ century, tea/wine cups (cuppa) became larger and wider, and chalice glasses featured hollow knots in the stem.

Baroque Innovations and 19th Century Industrialization

During the Baroque period ($17^{th}$ to $18^{th}$ century), a separation occurred between glassblowers and glass engravers. Bohemian glassmakers introduced lime glass (chalk glass) at the end of the $17^{th}$ century, which became popular in the Netherlands. Techniques included wheel engraving and stippling (placing small dots at varying densities to form an image). In the German regions, "Reichsadlerhumpen" were produced—folk-style glasses painted with the double-headed imperial eagle and the coats of arms of German principalities.

Following the French Revolution, the rising middle class created a demand for glass services. England led the industry, followed by Belgium with Val Saint Lambert. Production moved to large factories with bigger furnaces fueled by new energy sources. The steam engine allowed for large-scale grinding. Characteristics included geometric patterns, diamond-shaped facets, polychrome enamel, and glass staining (painting with a transparent colored layer before grinding). A true "glass service" emerged, where different drinks received specific, matching glass shapes.

Art Nouveau and Modern Glass Design

In the early $20^{th}$ century, the Muller Brothers (who worked at Val Saint Lambert) designed over $400$ different models between $1906$ and $1907$. Their work often featured two layers of devitrified glass etched with hydrofluoric acid and decorated with colored enamels. This was heavily influenced by French manufacturers like Manufacture Daum (founded in $1878$ by the Daum brothers, who evolved from Art Nouveau to Art Deco) and Émile Gallé. Gallé is famous for natural motifs, including plants and insects, on multi-colored decorated glass.

Medieval Furniture and Techniques

Few medieval furniture pieces survive due to the nomadic culture of the time; most remnants come from churches, monasteries, or castles. Common woods included softwood, walnut, and birch. The most vital object was the chest (kist), which served as storage, a chair, and a bed. Construction involved joining planks with forged iron fittings and nails that were bent over on the inside. Most furniture was polychromed (painted).

Technological shifts occurred in the $14^{th}$ century with the invention of the wind-powered sawmill, allowing for thinner, lighter boards. New tools like planes, chisels, frame saws, and hand drills appeared. Wood was joined using tongue-and-groove or mortise-and-tenon joints. Decorative motifs were influenced by Germanic, Celtic, and Viking styles (stars, diamonds, plant motifs) and became more refined with the rise of Gothic cities and guilds. Specialized pieces included fold-out chairs for the elite, "scissors chairs," and the "tresoor" (a chest elevated on long corner posts).

Renaissance and Baroque Furniture Arts

Renaissance furniture emerged around $1600$, featuring medallions, arabesques, pilasters, and caryatids. Hans Vredeman de Vries published an influential book of furniture designs in $1565$. Notable Belgian/Dutch styles included Zeeuwse cabinets with "cornis" panels (geometric decorations with glued moldings) and lion head pendants. Table styles varied from narrow "wangen" (cheeks) tables to tables with $4$, $6$, $8$, or $9$ turned legs in column shapes.

In the $17^{th}$ century, the Baroque period introduced exotic materials via the VOC (Dutch East India Company), such as ebony, rosewood, satinwood, tortoiseshell, ivory, and mother-of-pearl. Fine veneers (layers of noble wood over common wood) were hand-sawn to be several millimeters thick. Antwerp became a center for luxury cabinets (scribans), often featuring religious iconography, secret drawers ("secreet"), and perspectival mirrored interiors based on the mathematical theory of catoptrics. "Cushion cabinets" (kussenkasten) featured heavy, protruding moldings.

Rococo, Empire, and Modern Furniture Movements

The $18^{th}$ century Rococo style was marked by the "organ-curved" commode, typically featuring three drawers and claw-and-ball feet. These were often veneered with walnut or mahogany after $1750$. In the Southern Netherlands, Liège became a production center where ornaments were carved into solid wood rather than being glued on. The $19^{th}$ century brought the Empire style, characterized by Greek, Roman, and Egyptian forms using exotic woods and brass fittings.

Art Nouveau in Belgium was spearheaded by Gustave Serrurier-Bovy and Henry Van de Velde. Serrurier-Bovy combined Arts & Crafts influences with Japanese art, while Van de Velde designed complete environments, such as his house "Bloemenwerf" ($1895$). Following WWI, De Coene Frères in Kortrijk began mass-producing furniture using laminated wood for emergency housing. This era also saw the Modern Movement represented by Huib Hoste (bold color contrasts) and Gaston Eysselinck.

Evolution of Pottery and Earthenware

In antiquity, pottery was unglazed and porous, fired at low temperatures. In the $13^{th}$ century, red oxidizing earthenware appeared, fired at higher temperatures. By the late $14^{th}$ century, it was made waterproof with lead glaze. Lead glaze, composed of lead oxide and quartz sand, was transparent but could be colored with manganese oxide (purple-black) or copper oxide (green).

Stone-ware (Steengoed) appeared in the Rhineland between the $10^{th}$ and $15^{th}$ centuries. It was fired at temperatures high enough to vitrify the clay, then salt was thrown into the kiln to create a glossy salt glaze. Common forms included bearded man jugs (baardmankruiken). Ceramic floor tiles also evolved; the earliest in Flanders were small ($3-6.5\,cm$ wide) and unglazed. By the $13^{th}$ century, tiles were glazed or inlaid with pipe clay designs (encaustic technique).

Tin-Glazed Earthenware and Porcelain

Antwerp Majolica (plateel) flourished in the $16^{th}$ century, featuring white tin glaze and polychrome decorations. After the fall of Antwerp in $1585$, many potters moved north to Delft, where they simplified the style into "Delft Blue" due to Protestant preferences. In the $18^{th}$ century, porcelain, imported from China by the India Companies, became the height of luxury. True porcelain (hard paste) requires kaolin.

French "soft paste" porcelain was used before kaolin was widely available. In $1750$, the manufacture at Tournai (Doornik) reinvented a French recipe using a "frit" (glassy mass of sand, saltpeter, sea salt, gypsum, and alum) mixed with white clay and chalk. Gold decoration on soft porcelain was achieved by dissolving gold leaf or ground ducat powder in "strong water" mixed with sea salt spirit and sometimes mercury, then painting it on with a brush.

19th Century Industrial Ceramics

The Industrial Revolution led to mass-produced tiles and ceramics. Manufacturers like Boch (Belgium) and Josiah Wedgwood (England) led the way. The dry-press technique—compressing powder clay with low moisture between steel plates in a screw press—allowed for scale, dimensional stability, and shorter drying times. This period also saw the rise of "Old English" neo-Gothic floor patterns. Art Nouveau ceramics were popularized by the Les XX group, with artists like William Finch using simple slip (engobe) decorations and Boch Frères producing high-quality "Keramis" ware.

History of Tableware and Specialized Silver

Renaissance table settings were sparse; people often ate with knives, and forks were rare. Plates were made of wood or tin for the wealthy. In the Baroque period, specialized items like brandy bowls and lidded bowls appeared. The $18^{th}$ century saw the normalization of tea, coffee, and chocolate services. Tea pots featured bellied shapes and swan-neck spouts, while coffee pots were taller and pear-shaped. Difference: chocolate pots had a hole in the lid for a stirring stick.

Other specialized items included "trembleuse" cups (cups in a metal ring to prevent spilling during breakfast in bed), oil and vinegar sets, mustard pots, and silver bottle coolers. In the $18^{th}$ century, silver guilds were strictly regulated to control the silver content. In $1608$, Albert and Isabella mandated that silversmiths could only take two apprentices every four years. Pieces were marked with a "Large Hallmark" (town mark + crown, master mark, and year letter) or a "Small Hallmark" for items prone to wear.

Wall Decoration: Tapestries and Wallpaper

In the Middle Ages, walls were decorated with tapestries (for insulation and prestige) or whitewashed and painted with stencils. Wallpaper began as simple printed sheets (dominotiers) in the $16^{th}$ century. These were small, hand-made square sheets glued to wooden frames. By the $18^{th}$ century, Jean-Baptiste Réveillon in France introduced wallpaper rolls ($10.70\,m$ long) by gluing sheets together before printing with blocks.

Brussels was the world center for Renaissance tapestries, especially under Bernard van Orley, who introduced Italian Mannerist styles. Subjects included hunting scenes and religious themes. In the $19^{th}$ century, wallpaper became fully industrialized (using wood pulp and metal rollers), and William Morris of the Arts & Crafts movement designed democratic, nature-inspired patterns for the masses.

Picture Frames and Decorative Accents

Until $1530$, the frame and the painting support were often a single piece of wood. Later, separate frames were used, often incorporating the "waterslag" (a sloped bottom edge to prevent dust buildup). Renaissance frames (Cassetta) used techniques like "pastiglia" (modeling motifs in thick chalk/gesso). The Baroque era saw the rise of Louis XIII, XIV (massive), XV (asymmetrical Rococo), and XVI (slender Neoclassical) frames. In the $19^{th}$ century, many artists, specifically Impressionists, began to reject heavy gilded frames in favor of simpler alternatives.

Altarpieces and Sculpture

Brabant was the international center for retables (altarpieces) starting in the $15^{th}$ century. These were made of oak or walnut and heavily polychromed. Mechelen was famous for "Mechelen dolls" ($20-35\,cm$ tall) with characteristic small chins and high foreheads, often placed in "Besloten hofjes" (Enclosed Gardens)—shallow wooden boxes filled with symbolic artifacts like silk flowers, beads, and relics. In the Baroque period, sculpture followed a rigorous process: from sketches (Bozetti) to detailed models (Modelli) and finally legal presentation models (Vidimi).

Graphic Arts and Photography

Antwerp, led by Christophe Plantin, was the printing capital of Europe in the late $16^{th}$ century. Plantin used copper engravings to illustrate scientific works by Vesalius and Dodoens. In the $17^{th}$ century, Peter Paul Rubens established a massive studio for reproduction graphics, collaborating with engravers like Christoffel Jegher and Cornelis Galle to spread his designs.

In the late $19^{th}$ century, Art Nouveau posters became a major art form through lithography (invented by Aloïs Senefelder in $1796$). Lithography involves drawing with greasy ink on porous limestone. Designers like Privat-Livemont and Henri Meunier transformed commercial advertising into high art in Brussels.

Modern Movements: Art Nouveau to De Stijl

Art Nouveau ($1875-1925$) focused on organic, curvilinear lines and total design unity. In Belgium, Victor Horta’s architecture and Paul Hankar’s work defined the style. It was succeeded by Art Deco ($1920-1939$), an eclectic movement embracing technology, geometry, and rich colors (cemented by the $1925$ Paris exhibition). Parallel to this, "De Stijl" emerged in the Netherlands in $1917$, led by Theo van Doesburg. It sought harmony and order through primary colors (red, blue, yellow), non-colors (black, gray, white), and strict vertical and horizontal lines, rejecting the representation of reality.