The Cold War and Postwar America (1945-1970)

Chapter 34 The Cold War Begins 1945-1952, Truman: The "Gutty" Man from Missouri

• President Harry S. Truman was the first president in several years without a college degree.

  • Known as the "average man's average man."

  • Displayed the ability to face difficulties with courage.

Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal?

• In February 1945, the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) met at the Yalta Conference to discuss the end of the war.

  • Plans were made for the occupation of Germany.

  • Agreement on free elections for Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania, which Stalin later violated.

  • Announcement of plans to create a new international peacekeeping organization (the United Nations).

• A controversial decision involved the Far East:

  • American casualties in the war against Japan were anticipated to be high.

  • Stalin agreed to attack Japan after Germany's collapse in exchange for:

  • Southern half of Sakhalin Island and Kurile Islands from Japan.

  • Control over the railroads in China's Manchuria and special privileges in Dairen and Port Arthur.

• Key Point: Yalta agreements were not binding; the conference focused on discussions of post-war plans.

The United States and the Soviet Union

• The United States stopped lend-lease aid to USSR in 1945 and ignored a request for a $6 billion reconstruction loan.

• Approval of a $3.75 billion loan to Britain in 1946.

• USSR aimed for security through a "sphere of influence" approach with surrounding friendly countries.

  • This contradicted FDR's Wilsonian dream of an open, democratized world.

Shaping the Postwar World

• In 1944, the Bretton Woods Conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to regulate currency exchange and the World Bank to promote economic growth.

  • The U.S. played a leading role in founding these organizations after WWII, supplying most of their funding.

• The United Nations Conference began on April 25, 1945, with representatives from 50 nations creating the U.N. charter.

  • Key components included:

  • Security Council dominated by the Big Five: the U.S., Britain, USSR, France, China (all with veto power).

  • General Assembly controlled by smaller nations.

• Significant Event: Senate passed U.N. document on July 28, 1945.

• In 1946, Bernard Baruch proposed a U.N. agency for atomic energy oversight, but the plan failed due to reluctance to disarm.

The Problem of Germany

• Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946) saw Nazi leaders tried for war crimes with punishments including hangings and jail sentences.

• Recognition that a robust German economy was critical for Europe's recovery.

• The USSR's refusal to support German development due to fears concerning potential future aggression.

• Post-war division of Austria and Germany into four zones (allocated to France, Britain, America, USSR).

• USSR demanded reparations from Germany due to lack of post-war economic support.

The Split of Germany

• As communism spread in the east and western Allies promoted a united Germany:

  • Germany ultimately divided into two:

  • West Germany: Independent country.

  • East Germany: Soviet satellite state, isolated from the West by the "iron curtain."

• Berlin, surrounded by the Soviet Occupation Zone, faced a blockade in 1948.

  • The U.S. facilitated with airlifts of supplies until blockade lifted in May 1949.

• In 1949, formal governments established in East and West Germany.

The Cold War Deepens

• In 1946, Stalin violated an agreement to withdraw troops from Iran to support a rebel movement.

  • Stalin retreated after Truman's protest.

• In 1947, George F. Kennan proposed the "containment doctrine."

  • This concept stated:

  • USSR was consistently expansionist.

  • Can be contained through firmness and vigilance.

• Truman Doctrine (1947) provided financial aid to countries resisting communism, beginning with Greece.

European Economic Recovery

• After WWII, financial aid from the US paved recovery in France, Italy, and Germany, leading to decreased Communist influences.

• In 1948, Secretary of State George Marshall implemented the Marshall Plan, giving $12.5 billion to 16 European nations for recovery.

Cold War Configuration

• Access to Middle Eastern oil essential for U.S. economy and European recovery program; Truman recognized Israel in 1948 despite regional instability.

• U.S. exit from isolationism led to the establishment of defense and foreign policy entities:

  • National Security Act (1947): creation of the Department of Defense and the National Security Council (NSC).

  • Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) formed for foreign intelligence coordination.

Military Alliances and Cold War Tensions

• Formation of NATO in 1948, setting a pact for mutual defense.

• U.S. new role in militarizing responses to Soviet threats.

Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia

• General Douglas MacArthur led the democratization of Japan post-WWII.

  • Japanese adopted a MacArthur-dictated constitution.

• The fall of Nationalist China in late 1949 to communism under Mao Zedong left the U.S. shocked.

The Nuclear Arms Race

• Soviet atomic bomb test in 1949 fueled U.S. resolve to develop the H-bomb, which was subsequently tested in 1952.

The Korean Volcano Erupts

• Post-Japan, Korea divided at the 38th parallel, resulting in opposing governments:

  • Northern regime led by communists, Southern under U.S. support.

• NSC-68 (Document from National Security Council) called for increased military spending.

• North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950, igniting the Korean War.

• Truman ordered military support for South Korea, bypassing Congress.

Military Dynamics in Korea

• General MacArthur led counterattacks pushing North Koreans back, but faced setbacks due to Chinese involvement in November 1950.

• President Truman dismissed MacArthur in 1951 due to insubordination.

The Home Front During the Cold War

• Loyalty Review Board established to search for communists in the government under Truman.

  • In 1949, 11 communists convicted under the Smith Act.

  • Growth of McCarthyism, spearheaded by Senator Joseph McCarthy.

Economic Anxieties Post-WWII

• Post-war economy faced strikes and inflation, leading to the Taft-Hartley Act, restricting union powers.

• The Employment Act of 1946 established a Council of Economic Advisers.

• GI Bill of Rights promoted education and housing support for veterans, stimulating the economy.

Democratic Divisions in 1948 Elections

• Split in Democratic Party, with Truman supported by various voter groups leading to his victory.

The Long Economic Boom (1950-1970)

• Economic expansion driven by military spending and increasing productivity in various sectors.

Social Changes: The Sunbelt and Suburbs

• Shift towards the Sunbelt region and suburban living, leading to significant population and economic changes.

The Postwar Baby Boom

• The birth rate surged post-WWII, leading to a significant demographic change.

Chapter 35: American Zenith (1952-1963)

Affluence and Anxieties

• Rise of the electronics industry post-transistor invention and the prominence of IBM.

• Increase in white-collar jobs, decreasing blue-collar workforce, and rising prominence of women in the workforce.

Cultural Changes: The 1950s Consumer Culture

• Innovations like credit cards and fast-food shaped leisure and consumer lifestyles.

• Television growth led to new forms of entertainment and cultural shifts.

Eisenhower's Presidency and the 1952 Election

• Eisenhower's victory leveraged dissatisfaction with the Truman administration's policies.

Desegregation Initiatives

• Civil rights faced hurdles, culminating in landmark legal battles and societal movements.

Foreign Policy Under Eisenhower

• Cold War tensions led to military alliances and crises, including Vietnam and Middle Eastern conflicts.

  • Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact counteractions.

  • Eisenhower Doctrine established U.S. support for Middle Eastern nations against communism.

1960 Election and Kennedy's Presidency

• Kennedy's campaign and public image contrasted sharply with Nixon's.

  • Kennedy won amid growing economic concerns and civil rights discussions.

• Kennedy's New Frontier and efforts in civil rights faced resistance.

Civil Rights Movement Involvement and Challenges

• Kennedy's slow progress on civil rights legislation compared to pressure from activist movements.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

• Tense political climate during the Cuban Missile Crisis highlighted Cold War stakes and public anxieties.

The Civil Rights Struggle

• Increased protests and legal changes transformed America's approach to racial equality.

LBJ's Great Society

• Johnson's domestic initiatives aimed to reduce poverty and tackle racial discrimination echoed New Deal legacies.

Vietnam War Developments

• Increasing involvement in Vietnam escalated tensions and public opposition to war policies under LBJ.

The Stormy Sixties (1963-1973)

LBJ's Presidency and Battles for Rights

• Major legislative achievements in civil rights and economic reforms defined LBJ's term.

Nixon to the Presidency

• Nixon's strategies for withdrawal from Vietnam suggested turning points in U.S. foreign policy.

The Arab Oil Embargo and Economic Challenges

• Economic crisis stemming from geopolitical tensions highlighted vulnerabilities in U.S. dependence on foreign oil sources.

Conclusion

• These pivotal moments shaped postwar America, with implications for domestic policies and international dynamics, illustrating the complexities of the Cold War era and its lasting impacts on American society.