Comprehensive SVT Grade 10 Review Notes for Grade 11 Specialty Biology

Organization and Structural Scales of Living Organisms

  • Cellular Basis of Life:

    • The cell is the fundamental structural unit of all living organisms; all living beings are composed of one or multiple cells.
    • The cell represents the smallest living element.

  • Levels of Biological Organization and Orders of Magnitude:

    • Organism: m\text{m}
    • Organ: cm\text{cm}
    • Tissue: mm\text{mm}
    • Cell: \text{̦}\text{̧}̴̵̶̷̸̨̡̢̛̰̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌̕̚ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏͓͔͕͖͙͚͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ͘͜͟͢͝͞͠͡\text{m}}
    • Organelle: \text{̦}\text{̧}̴̵̶̷̸̨̡̢̛̰̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌̕̚ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏̴̵̶̷̸̡̢̛͓͔͕͖͙͚̖̗̘̙̜̝̞̟̠̣̤̥̩̪̫̬̭̮̯̱̲̳̹̺̻̼͇͈͉͍͎͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ̑̀́̂̃̄̅̆̇̈̉̊̋̌̍̎̏̐̒̓̔̽̾̿̀́͂̓̈́͆͊͋͌͘̕̚͜͟͢͝͞͠͡ͅ͏͓͔͕͖͙͚͐͑͒͗͛ͣͤͥͦͧͨͩͪͫͬͭͮͯ͘͜͟͢͝͞͠͡\text{m}}
    • Molecule: nm\text{nm}

  • Detailed Definitions:

    • Molecule: An arrangement of atoms.
    • Cell Components:
      • Plasma membrane.
      • Cytoplasm (a gel-like substance).
      • Genetic material.
      • Organelles (present in eukaryotic cells, e.g., nucleus, mitochondria).
    • Organelle: A compartment of the cell bounded by a single or double membrane that carries out a specific function.
      • Nucleus: Encloses the genetic material.
      • Mitochondria: Enable the production of energy usable by the cell.
      • Chloroplast: Responsible for photosynthesis.
    • Tissue: A collection of specialized cells with similar structures (organelles, shape) that allow them to perform a common function. Within a tissue, cells are held together by an extracellular matrix.
    • Organ: A collection of tissues participating in the performance of one or several specific functions.

Genetics and Molecular Biology

  • Localization of Genetic Material:

    • Eukaryotic cells: Genetic information is localized inside the nucleus.
    • Bacteria (prokaryotes): Genetic material floats freely inside the cytoplasm.

  • Chromosomes, Genes, and Alleles:

    • Simple Chromosome: Consists of a single molecule of DNA containing numerous genes.
    • Gene: A portion of a DNA molecule whose nucleotides are linked in a precise order to form a message that directs the synthesis of a specific protein.
    • Gene Differentiation: Two distinct genes have significantly different nucleotide sequences and very often a different number of nucleotides, thereby carrying distinct genetic information.
    • Alleles: Two different versions of the exact same gene. Their nucleotide sequences are nearly identical.

  • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) Structure:

    • Molecule Structure: Formed by two complementary chains coiled into a double helix and held together by weak hydrogen bonds.
    • Nucleotides: Each chain is made of a sequence of basic building blocks called nucleotides.
    • Components of a Nucleotide:
      • A sugar: Deoxyribose.
      • A phosphate group: Phosphoric acid.
      • A nitrogenous base: One of four types: Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), or Thymine (T).
    • Complementary Pairing: Nucleotides on opposing strands bind through complementary base pairing held by weak hydrogen bonds (Adenine pairs with Thymine, Cytosine pairs with Guanine).
    • Information Carrier: The specific sequence of nucleotides (the precise linear order in which nucleotides are linked along an ADN strand) represents biological information.

Diagram of a DNA fragment showing complementary nucleotide chains and structural components

Cellular Metabolism

  • Metabolism:

    • The sum total of all biochemical reactions taking place within the cytoplasm or inside organelles of a cell, necessary for its survival and functioning.

  • Nutritional Modes:

    • Autotrophic Cell: A cell that produces its organic matter exclusively from mineral matter.
    • Heterotrophic Cell: A cell that produces its organic matter from organic molecules manufactured by other living organisms.

  • Enzymes:

    • A molecule that catalyzes/enables chemical reactions to take place within living organisms.
    • Enzymes are proteins, which means they are coded for by genes.

  • Photosynthesis:

    • Metabolic pathways occurring within chloroplasts that produce organic matter from mineral matter using light energy.
    • Balanced Chemical Equation:6CO2+6H2O→[Light]C6H12O6+6O26\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} →[\text{Light}] \text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2

  • Cellular Respiration:

    • Metabolic pathways occurring within mitochondria that produce energy-rich molecules usable for cell functioning by transforming organic molecules.
    • Balanced Chemical Equation:C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energetic molecules+heat\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{energetic molecules} + \text{heat}

Evolutionary Genetics and Biodiversity

  • Biodiversity Scales:

    • The diversity of life on Earth is categorized into three distinct scales:
      1. Ecosystem Biodiversity: Diversity of living environments and the interactions occurring within them.
      2. Species Biodiversity: The diversity of species present within each ecosystem, measured as the number of different species occupying a given habitat.
      3. Genetic Biodiversity: Diversity among individuals within a single species, measured as the number of different alleles for each gene.

  • Ecosystem Definition:

    • A system constituted by a physical living environment (biotope) and all the living beings (biocenosis) interacting within that environment.

  • Mechanisms of Evolution and Diversity:

    • Origin of Allele Diversity: Arises from mutations affecting genes.
    • Mutation: A modification in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA.
    • Natural Selection: A non-random change in allele frequencies within a population over successive generations, caused by environmental selection pressure.
    • Genetic Drift: A random (chance-driven) modification in allele frequencies within a population over successive generations. Genetic drift has a significantly more pronounced impact in small populations.
    • Speciation: The entire set of mechanisms leading to the formation of a new species, driven primarily by natural selection combined with genetic drift.

Endocrinology and Intercellular Communication

  • Hormone:
    • A signaling molecule.
    • Secreted (manufactured) by specialized cells.
    • Carried through the body via the bloodstream.
    • Acts specifically on target cells by binding to specific receptors.

Geology: Rock Alteration, Erosion, and Sedimentation

  • Rock Definition:

    • A rock is an aggregate or assemblage of minerals.

  • Rock Alteration (Weathering):

    • Physical and/or chemical modification of rocks under the action of various agents, primarily water.

  • Erosion:

    • The removal and transport of solid particles and dissolved ions resulting from rock alteration, driven mainly by the actions of wind and water.
    • Impact on Landscapes: Erosion affects all terrestrial landforms/reliefs and continuously transforms landscapes.

  • Transport and Sedimentation:

    • Fate of Alteration Products: A portion of alteration products (both soluble ions and solid particles) are transported mainly by water to deposition locations.
    • Sedimentation Definition: The deposition of solid particles resulting from erosion (= sediments) at the bottom of a body of water.

Human Microbiota and Pathology

  • Microbiota:

    • The complete set of micro-organisms (including bacteria, fungi, etc.) living on and inside the human body.

  • Symbiosis:

    • The mutually benefitial relationship existing between the human body and its microbiota.

  • Pathogen:

    • An organism responsible for causing a disease.