Anomie and Strain Theory

Self-Care Reminder

  • This module addresses themes of victimization, violence, and abuse.

  • It's important to prioritize self-care; reach out to your PDT, Student Support Team, or GP if needed.

Key Questions in Criminology

  • What defines ‘crime’?

  • What are the objects and levels of analysis?

  • What assumptions about human action and social order are made?

  • What key concepts are utilized in criminology?

Sociological Positivism: Early Beginnings

  • Definition: Concerned with observable reality.

  • Ontology: Assumes one social world exists.

  • Epistemology: Knowledge focuses on discovering observable and measurable social facts (Alharahsheh & Pius, 2020).

  • Context: Emerged around 1830s via moral statisticians studying crime distribution (Bryant, 1975).

    • Noted patterns in crime:

    • Varied types/amounts regionally.

    • Stable types/amounts annually within regions suggests predictability of crime rates.

André-Michel Guerry (1802 – 1866)

  • Contribution: Analyzed French criminal statistics using an ecological approach.

  • Key Assertions:

    1. No direct poverty-crime correlation.

    2. Lack of education is not linked to crime (Friendly, 2022).

Emile Durkheim: Relevant Works

  • Notable Texts:

    • The Division of Labour in Society (1893)

    • Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897)

    • The Rules of the Sociological Method (1895)

    • Moral Education (1902)

Biological Determinism

  • Durkheim critiques biological determinism by stating heredity transmits general faculties, not specific aptitudes.

  • Concept: Individuals become deviant more likely in anomic social circumstances, where social harmony deteriorates due to labor division.

Anomie

  • Definition: Condition where individuals are left without social or moral constraints (Durkheim, 1950).

  • Breakdown in social order occurs during transitions in social structures, impacting behavior, potentially leading to suicidal thoughts or acts.

Collective Conscience

  • Defined by Durkheim as the totality of beliefs and sentiments common to society (1893).

  • Serves as a constraining force to individual appetites, ensuring societal cohesion (Durkheim, 1978).

Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity

  • Mechanical Solidarity: Characterizes simple societies with little differentiation and strong collective conscience.

  • Organic Solidarity: Characterizes complex societies where individualism arises from a specialization of labor, leading to interdependence (Durkheim, 1964).

Anomic Conditions

  • Criteria that lead to anomie involve:

    1. Lack of integration in work functions.

    2. Conflicts between labor and capital.

    3. Increased specializations.

Individual Conscience and Society

  • Durkheim's assertion that there are two consciences: a collective one within the group and personal conscience that defines individuality (1893).

  • The transition from mechanical to organic solidarity necessitates a framework for meaningful actions, fostering social order (1964).

Suicide and Anomie

  • Types of Suicide Identified by Durkheim:

    1. Egoistic Suicide: Insufficient social integration.

    2. Anomic Suicide: Results from a disruption of social norms.

    3. Altruistic Suicide: Excessive integration leading to self-sacrifice.

Crime as a Social Fact

  • Durkheim posit that crime is a social fact integral to all societies, with functions in evolving morality and establishing societal limits (1963, 1895).

Functions of Crime

  • Functions of Deviance:

    1. Necessary to generate and sustain morality;

    2. Clarifies moral boundaries;

    3. Promotes societal change and evolution;

    4. Helps form collective sentiments and creates new norms based on reactions to criminal behavior.

Robert K. Merton and Anomie

  • Merton introduces a modern interpretation of anomie and strain theorizing class differences and social structure impact on deviance.

  • Cultural Goals and Means:

    • Cultural Goals: Societal aspirations like the American Dream.

    • Institutionalized Means: Accepted pathways to achieve these goals.

  • Disjuncture leads to strain: Merton highlights an imbalance where cultural aspirations are pursued without legitimate means, causing deviance.

Modes of Individual Adaptation (Merton)

  1. Conformity: Adherence to societal norms and goals.

  2. Innovation: Use of unconventional means to attain goals when legitimate paths are blocked.

Critiques of Merton’s Anomie Theory

  • Observations regarding how empirical tests of his theory might oversimplify its core ideas, especially regarding the application to various social classes and types of crime.

Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory (GST)

  • Types of Strain Identified by Agnew:

    1. Preventing goal achievement.

    2. Removal of positively valued stimuli.

    3. Presentation of negative stimuli.

  • Strain is cumulative, leading to delinquent behavior as a coping mechanism. GST is applicable across various forms of crime and socio-economic backgrounds.

Strain theory, primarily developed by sociologist Robert K. Merton, provides insight into how societal structures can push individuals toward deviant behavior when they are unable to achieve culturally endorsed goals through legitimate means.

Key Components of Strain Theory:

  • Cultural Goals and Institutional Means:

    • Cultural aspirations, such as the American Dream, represent societal goals individuals aim to achieve.

    • Institutionalized means are the socially accepted channels available to pursue these cultural goals, such as education and employment.

  • Strain and Deviance:

    • A disjuncture occurs when there is an imbalance between culturally prescribed goals and the legitimate means to achieve them.

    • Individuals experiencing this strain may resort to deviant behavior, leading to various forms of crime as an alternative means to reach their desired outcomes.

Modes of Individual Adaptation (Merton):

  1. Conformity:

    • Individuals who accept both the culturally accepted goals and the prescribed means, adhering to societal norms while pursuing success.

  2. Innovation:

    • Individuals who accept the goals but reject the legitimate means, opting instead for unconventional methods (e.g., crime) to achieve success.

  3. Ritualism:

    • Individuals who abandon the goals but continue to adhere to the prescribed means, often resulting in a life of routine and adherence to rules without any hope of achievement.

  4. Retreatism:

    • Individuals who reject both the goals and the means, retreating into alternative lifestyles (e.g., substance abuse, vagrancy).

  5. Rebellion:

    • Individuals who reject both existing societal goals and means, seeking to create new goals and means.

Critiques of Merton’s Theory:

  • Empirical tests often oversimplify the complexity of deviance and its causes.

  • The theory may not adequately account for variations within social classes or types of crime, particularly in understanding how strain might differently affect various groups in society.

Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory (GST):

  • Expands on Merton’s theory by identifying additional types of strain beyond the failure to achieve goals.

    • Types of Strain Identified by Agnew:

    1. Preventing goal achievement.

    2. Removal of positively valued stimuli (e.g., loss of a job).

    3. Presentation of negative stimuli (e.g., abuse or bullying).

  • GST asserts that strain is cumulative, which can lead to delinquent behavior as individuals look for coping mechanisms for their stressors.

  • GST emphasizes that strain can affect individuals across different social contexts and backgrounds, making it a versatile framework for understanding crime.