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Ashkenazi Jews: Jews from central and eastern Europe 

Astronomical Chart: a map of stars that improved navigation

Atlantic Circuit: the network of trade routes connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas that underlay the Atlantic system

Aztec Empire: an empire in Mexico that was overthrown by Cortes in 1521 

Barbary Pirates: those who plied the seas near North Africa along the Barbary Coast and captured other European slaves in the Mediterranean and then sold them to the sultan or other high-ranking officials 

Bartolomé de Las Casas: (1474-1566) First bishop of Chiapas in southern Mexico who devoted most of his life to protecting Amerindian peoples from exploitation. His major achievement was the New Laws of 1542, which limited the ability of Spanish settlers to compel Amerindians to labor for them

Bartholomew Diaz: sailed around the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 into unknown waters then returned home for fear of a mutiny 

Bight of Biafra: the slave trade expanded into this area in the 18th century. Slaves and tradable goods were collected at fairs in large numbers

Boyars: Russian landholding aristocrats; possessed less political power than their western European counterparts

Capitalism: the economic system of large financial institutions —banks, stock exchanges, investment companies—that first developed in early modern Europe. Commercial capitalism, the trading system of the early modern economy, is often distinguished from industrial capitalism, the system based on machine production

Carolina Fur Trade: (1600's) English fur traders pushed into the interior to compete with French trading networks based in New Orleans and Mobile

Cartography: the art of mapmaking 

Cash Crop: sellable crop that is grown and gathered for the market such as sugar and tobacco

Charter Companies: groups of private investors who paid an annual fee to France and England in exchange for a monopoly over trade to the West Indies colonies

Chattel Slavery: a system where individuals were considered property to be bought and sold 

Christopher Columbus: navigator who explored the Americas under the flag of Spain 

City of Potosi: located in Bolivia it was one of the richest silver mining centers and most populous cities in colonial Spanish America

Columbian Exchange: the exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Columbus's voyages 

Commercial Revolution: transformation to a trade-based economy using gold and silver 

Conquistadors: Spanish soldiers who conquered parts of the Americas in the 16th century