2.3, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7 AP Psychology

Introduction to Memory

• Overview of Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

Learning Targets 5.A

• Cognitive Processes: Compare and contrast

  • 5.A.1 Effortful vs. automatic processing

  • 5.A.2 Deep vs. shallow processing

  • 5.A.3 Selective vs. divided attention

  • 5.A.4 Metacognition

• Memory Systems: Psychological vs. physiological

  • 5.B.1 Short-term memory

  • 5.B.2 Implicit (procedural) memory

  • 5.B.3 Long-term memory

  • 5.B.4 Sensory memory (echoic, iconic)

  • 5.B.5 Prospective memory

  • 5.B.6 Explicit memory (semantic, episodic)

  • 5.B.7 Physiological systems

Learning Targets 5.C

• Key Researchers Contributions

  • 5.C.1 Noam Chomsky

  • 5.C.2 Hermann Ebbinghaus

  • 5.C.3 Wolfgang Kohler

  • 5.C.4 Elizabeth Loftus

  • 5.C.5 George A. Miller

• Memory Systems: Psychological vs. physiological for short- and long-term memory

Understanding Memory

• Definition: Memory indicates that learning has persisted over time; ability to store and retrieve information.

• Unique and similar memories: shaped by life experiences (episodic) and shared knowledge (semantic).

Flashbulb Memory

• Highly emotional moments can create vivid memories, but they are subject to errors.

Stages of Memory

• Memory Process: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval (Sequential Process)

Information Processing Model**

• Atkinson and Schiffrin (1968): Three-stage model includes:

  • Sensory memory

  • Short-term memory (working memory)

  • Long-term memory

Memory Types

1. Sensory Memory

• Initial storage of information for a brief period (1-2 seconds).

• Allows sensation registration and determines attention importance.

2. Short-term Memory

• Holds meaningful info temporarily (usually < 30 seconds).

• Capacity: 7 ± 2 items; can increase via chunking.

3. Long-term Memory

• Stores information permanently.

• Appears to have limitless capacity, with strategic encoding and retrieval mechanics.

Memory Storage Principles

• Understanding how information is stored and retained in memory.

Long-term Memory Details

• Has a capacity estimated between 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information.

Memory Traces & Synaptic Changes

• Physical existence of memories investigated at the synapse level; synaptic changes consolidate memories.

• Long-term potentiation: strengthens synapses based on recent activity patterns.

Brain Structures Involved in Memory

• Key Areas:

  • Prefrontal Cortex: Sequences of events.

  • Amygdala: Emotional aspects.

  • Medial Temporal Lobe & Hippocampus: New explicit memories.

  • Cerebellum: Movement-related memories.

Memory Storage Locations

• Memories are distributed across the brain based on the type of material; for example, visual information is stored in the visual cortex.

Stress and Memory

• Stress enhances memory formation but prolonged stress can disrupt memory.

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious memories influencing behavior (like skills).

• Explicit Memory: Deliberate recollection of information (like names, experiences).

Types of Explicit Memory

• Declarative Memory: Facts and information.

• Semantic Memory: General knowledge and language.

• Episodic Memory: Personal experiences with temporal and contextual details.

Memory Retrieval Strategies

• Retrieval: Process of getting information out from memory storage using cues.

• Cues help in retrieving memories linked via associations.

Results from Retrieval Cues**

• Types:

  • Recognition: Identifying correct items among options.

  • Recall: Actively retrieving information without cues.

  • Relearning: Assessing retention of previously learned material.

Memory Errors and Forgetting

Types of Forgetting

• Forgetting: Inability to retrieve information due to encoding, storage, or retrieval failures.

  • Encoding Failure: Information not attended to or encoded.

  • Storage Decay: Gradual fading of memories over time.

  • Retrieval Failure: Information exists but cannot be accessed.

Interference**

• Proactive Interference: Old information blocks new information.

• Retroactive Interference: New information blocks retrieval of old information.

Motivated Forgetting

• Includes repression of anxiety-arousing memories; selective memory loss of undesired thoughts/experiences.

Amnesia Types

• Anterograde: Inability to form new memories post-incident.

• Retrograde: Inability to recall past memories before an incident.

• Source Amnesia: Misattribution of where a memory originated.

True vs. False Memories

• Difficulty in discerning real from false memories; susceptible to misinformation or suggestion.

Eyewitness Testimony Reliability

• Recollections can be flawed; leading questions can distort memories.

Memory Improvement Strategies

• Effective methods include repeated studying, meaningful material association, and using mnemonic devices.