AP Bio.docx

circular

in

liner

in

Eukaryotes

-Sto 3

Prokuyotes,

Helical

-

:

directionality

5'

Phosphate

together by

H-bonding

Diagram

-

-strands

are

paired

-

3 :

Ol

group

Nucleotides

- Madeof

Deoxyribose

sugar, phosphate ,

and

nitrogenous

base

-Purines

(A &6)

-Forms

2

A-bonds

-

Pyrimidines

(C_,

^T, ^& r)

-

^Forms 3 1-bones

^- More _energy

required

to brock

- DNA

Storage

-Prokaryotes

cytoplasm

chromosome

-

-stored

in

the

as

a circular

Eukaryotes

around

-

Wound

^histone proteins

and

are "supercoiled"

-Eukaryotic

Telomeres

-

Eukaryotic

DNA

has ends

because it's

linear

^- Ends_can

crode

and

lead to _gene

loss

- Telomeresare

caps

^that protect degradation

-mRINAhas a

ribose

sugar

1016

grap

added

-

-> Uracil : Less

stable

and anti-codons on other

- tRNA : Has

amino acids

on one and

that _pair to

codons

- Netcold^j:specializedover in

prokaryofes for DWA

- chromosomes : Liner&D in _evkiyotes

- mRNA^: Copies ^of _genes ^{to be}used

to ^encode a protein

- rRNA: Structural _componentsof

END

- ^tRNA : Bringamino ^{acids to} the ribosome for _protein

synthesis

- microRNA :_Regulators of other _genes

- Pro_-karyote

Structure

Prokuyotes : single-celled organisms

like

bacteria & Archaea

-prokaryotes

^{also do translation} & transcription and _pass ^down _genetic info _through ^DNA

· Capsule : Sticky^outer _layer

that

helps not

drying ^{out and} protects ^{from immune} system

6.2 - DNA Replication

- Central

Dogma :Flow of information in

_a cell

- DNA-RNA-> Protein

Image

-DNA _Replication Basics

-

during ^the "S" phase

_-Occurs

Step

:

Initiation

Step 1

- Topoisomerase: ^Relaxes

the _supercoiled DNA new

Mage

Origin

of replication

-

DNA

Helicase : Breaks

H-bonds

>-Single ^stranded binding proteins : ^keep

-

strands

from re-annealing

Step 2 : Elongation

-Primase: Produces ^RNA _primers

so that

DNA _polymerase can bind

continuous

Mage

>-Primase

adds _primers from ^the

3' end

replication

fragments

-

lagging

strand

:

Ends ins

is

discontinuous with

Okazaki

,

_Step 3 : Termination

-Primers are

^removed and ^DNA ligase ^fills in 0 fragment _gaps

^DNA Polymerase

_profracs and will correct incorrect _placements

-Silent : Some amino ad

-

-Misense ^: Diff Amino arid

d

- Non-sense : Stop-codon

- Ways^bacteria generate diversity

-Transduction :

Bacteriophage going

integrated

bacteriophages

-

Lystic cycle

:

to lath on to

hosta insert DNA which is

to make more

best

-Lysogenic aycle:

Bacteriophage binds

and host

^keeps genome

_Conjugation : Bacteria transfer

DNA

---

-

-

&

Tur

in

·

Paym_-

>

2

ent

⑮

#

S

- Biotechnology

-^Gel Electrophoresis : ^Poles are & charged ^and

DNA ^and UND are _negative so it alhauls

^{to the} _positive+ smaller-go faster if further

regulatory-

Binds to stop transcription

Gene

↳

-₌

-Inducable

-

-

-Lac Opene

r

-

Lactose

does

^⑧Protein

Promoter

Operator

Repressable

allosteric

blany

-

RNA Polymerase

to protein and

-

operand

unbinds

from operate

Turb

-Protein

is altered

to

^{bind to} operator

-

zu

&

1_F

Ap Bio

Unit

7

Introduction

to

evolution

and

natural

selection

-Evolution :

Variation

is natural in

_,and

certain variations would survive

more

-Applicable ^to viruses

species

& bacteria

Variation

in

a

species

Artificial selection

and

domestication

Antificial selection : _Breeding done

by

humans

Done

to

doys

turn animals

I

produce

,

,

Genetic drift

bottleneck effect

and

founder effect

,

,

-Genetic drift:

^Random changes

- Reproductionrandomly

changes

allele

frequency

-

- More

likely_:

with

small

populations

Bottleneak

Effect

_Major distaster

kills

majority ^{of the} population

· Traits

left

may

not be

any

more desirable

- Fandereffect : _Founding

a new

population

Hardy-Weinberg

equation

- Nonatural selection

freg

-₊

= ¹

·

^No mutation

Estable allele

-p+ app + qu⁼¹

p

q

-

Homyyau

Yerumozygos

large population

a b

Carrara Video

-Evolution= _Change in allele _frequency

- NaturalSelection : Nature/event favors _a

certain

genotype

- Mutation

- Genetic

-Horizontal _gene transfer (Bacteria

Drift : Random _changes in

allele

frequencies

-Very

small population ^needed to happen

^which changes ^allele frequencies

Founder effect : Subsection

^of a population

starts

a new population

-Bottleneck effect : Most

of population

dies

due

to natural

selection

-Gene flow :

People ^with certain phenotype more ^to

a population

- Hardy-Weinberg

Equilibrium

· _q : Recessive

^allele frequency

· pe= Homozygous

dominant frequency

^- 2 py = Heterozygousfrequency

- Nonatural selection

3

- Nomutation

· Largeallele

frequency

Stable allele

frequency

- No

gene

flow

-

^Random mating

- Species:Can interbreed and

have viable _offspring

-AllopatricSpeciation: Geographically split apart, thus

leading ^to a new species

·

Sympatric Speciation: Happens

^{in the} same place , usually

y

_polyploidy ^{!More than} two full sets of chromosomes) or ^behavior

· Prezygotic_-

factors : Before they exist

Habitat

-Temporal: Mate at different times

Mechanical : Genitalia don't fit _together

-Gametic: Gametes can't fuse due to

physiological

differences

- Behavioral : Different_courtship behavior

-Po_-stzygotic factors: Child that is born is

not viable

^Reduced hybrid viability: ^Can't

live after

a certain

age

- Reduced

hybrid _fertility: Unable to have their own kids

- Hybrid

breakdown : At some

point across

generations

the _species will die

- Common

Ancestry

Less time = less differences

-

Molecular ^bio : ^Genetic _makeup

Biogeography: Isolation _prior to differentiation will cause similarities

Ex

_Marsupials in Australia

Fossils

- Phylogenetic

trees

mate_O

ria_It

-4 6 billion

years

ago

: Earthwas

formed

We know this

from

stromatalite

fossils

- Miller-UreyExperiment

sparked

turned

-_{Put a} bunch

of

_gas in a

container_,

it

up, ^and

inorganic

into

_organic lamino arids)

-Suggests ^that organic compounds

could've

formed

from

these

inorganic

ones to

make

life

More Notes

Peripatric

Speciation

: Subset of

,

small and

isolated

population

at the

edge

evolves (Founder effect

·

-RNA world hypothesis: RNA

was

the

first

_genetic molecule

of life

-This is because _it

can

store

and

transmit

^into, self-replicate_,

moreplausible ^{at the time} ,

and _catalyzes reactions

- ^PunctuatedEquilibrium^: Species

remain

in stasis but

have

_rapid bursts

of evolution

-Hydrogen Bonding:

Powerful

intramolecular

bonis

that

lead

to _{strong polar} IMFs with other ^water molecules

- Cohesion :Water _is

attracted

to itself

and

sticks

to

itself

· Adhesion :Water attracted to other thinks and

sticks

to

if

- ^Heatof vaporization

is high for water_,

meaning

it's

hard to boil

-

Specific

heat is

high

for

water hard

to

change

temperature

,

- Living

organisms

like

to have

a constant

temperature

-

Protons

:

Positively

charged

defines element_,

I

amu

(weight

,

- Nonpolar: Some_{electrotivity}

- Polar:Diff

electronegativity

needs _more

electrons

,

- IMFs: Bonus between

different moled es

- London

Dispersion

Forces (LDFs) : Random_, all molecules have this _,

size of

atoms

- Van

der Waals:

-Hydrogen bonds :

stay

Hold

together

bio molecules

Need

to

· Macromoleurles

- Monomers :Small_{, singular} subunits

chemical

comp. ^of

-Polymers: Formed from

many monomers

· _Typesof Macromolecules

_Macro moderles

-

Carbohydrates

-GlycogeniVerybrancheBoth _have

bonds

/Easy

to break

in functiona

-Cellulose

have

ar

to

_, helps

mate

3Both

p-bonds

be, for

restoring)

as

structural

- Monomer: Aminoacids

ne

-_Only the

R-group

changes

Amino#

R

among

-

A

amino rids

al

_* ig

-

Proteins: "Toolbox"

^{& do} everything, are enzymes

N

=

C

C

It ^D

#

- Inorder to form _a

polymer

:

Dehydration Synthesis

&

Dehydration synthesis

-

side

:

Oh from acid

on one

molecule

and A from

amino side of another

-

come

off and

make 100

while bond

forms

- Lipids

ructure

hydrocarbons

Sycerd

Made of

-

-

-

Results in _hydrophic

H-c-C-GH

Phospholipid: Phosphate

attached to - ^>

↳

-Phosphate ^new is hydrophilic and

tall is

hydrophobic

bilayer in cells

Forms

phospholipid

-

_- Steroid_, Cholestrol_,

-

Saturated:

No double bond_, allows for

unlimited

hydrogen

·

Unsaturated : Double bond

reduces amt.

Of

hydrogen

that can bond

,

- Transfat: Take _plant/fish

unsaturated fats

and

saturate them

- UNAstrands are _{anti-parallel}

31

DNA

- RNA

-

single-stranded

- Double-stranded

-

ATCG

- AUCG

- AG (Dure as_gold

Pyramidines

- Purines

·

as

*

·

Light_-

microscopes

which

retracted and then

Light

is

shone

through

a

goes up

and

yets

you

look

sample,

,

- Magnify

1000X

how dar _image is

-Resolution is

^- Scan_-ning

FM :

Probe

sends

an

electron_, which

bounces off

and is detected _by

a scanner

Can

only

tell

the surface

of the

sample

- ^10x10°magnification

through

_sample and checks

-

Tunneling EM:

Shoots

electrons

on

other

side

- Cell

kills

organism

blended and

cell

Fractionation :

Cell is

put

in

a

centrifuge

to

separate

by

- CellStructure

Water

Ayuroville

-

- Basicstructure: Plasma

^membrane, cytosol

Plasma membrane

^Made of phospholipids

<- 0000000 -

Hydrophilic ^need

3333333 Hydrophobic

- Hydrophobic tail

_- bl

Phospholipid bilayer

Water

-Proteins

protein

Inside

-

Integral

:

the membrane

-Transmembrane _protein : _Spons ^{the entire}

membrane

- Periptural _proteins :^Outside membrane

but connected

- Unsaturated

fatty ^acids

yet close

- Phospholipidsare ^saluated, unsaturating

them forms a

kink

and

they cannot

- Cholestrol:

Holds

phospholipids

together

-^Cold temp: Phospholipids

pull

together so

cholestral _pushes

apart

- ^Hottemp: Phospholipics

push apart so

cholestral pulls

in

-How

things

yet

through ^the plasma

membrane

Only

small and

hydrophobic

molecules can

passively

diffuse

_- Going through ^wh protein : ^{Facilatddiffusion}

would result in _repulsion

Electrochemical _gradient: _Moving in

gradint

·Hypertonic

us . Hypotonk

· Hypotonic

-Hypertonic

-Water leves cell to

- Water

enters cell to

lower

outside concentration

lower concentration

- Cell

shrivel

- ^cellenlargens

- Osmosis : Diffusionof

water

-Active transport : Uses carrier

protein

and PTP

to _go against ^the gradient

- AnimalCell

- Nuclear_enelope: Double

membrane protectomies

-Rough ER : Creates membrane and

metabolism_, cotted withribosons

- Mitochondrion: Generates ATP

_very folded (mutris)_, folds called

-Structure : 2 membranes_, inner

membrane

is

crystae

then engulfed

- _Endosymbiont: Mitochondria was

archae and

was

Unit 3 AP Bio

&

- Chemical :

Power

in

bonds

- How

biological

systems

store

energy

· The_-rmodynamics :^Science

of

transferring

energy

Two

les that are important for

bio

-

1st :

Conservation

of

_energy ^{(Not made} or destroyed

and :

Entropy is

always

increasing

Entropy

:

Disorder

of

universe

-

AG

= AH-TAS

- ^S =Entropy

- ^T =Temperature

- ⁶ = Gibbsfree

energy

How much

cell

can do

work

a

·

A60 ^: Amt. of _{energy rey,}

is inc , ^not spontaneous

-

A640 :

Spending

work

_on work

- ^H : Enthalpy

your

energy

, spontaneous

-

(potential _energy

^AH-0: Endergonic,

taking _energy ^from surroundings

- AHLO:

,

releasing

energy

·

ATP and

Exorgonic

^Reaction Coupling

- Breaking

off _a

phosphate

group

from

ATP to make

ADP is extremely _exergonic, ^{which is then}

coupled with

an

endergonic ^reaction

to

take

the

energy

- Enzyme

being

-Speeds _up reactions

electrically who

consumed

for _specific substances

- Active site :

Where substrates

bind

-substrate:

What bings

to

have lower ad

energy

-Ways

to

lower

actuation

energy

- Band

substrate

to

be

in

better

form

-- Enzyme

- Increaseit's

energy

Eye

-

Denature

:

Enzyme ^breaks

in diff

conditions

-

-Temp & pl conditions

Cofactor:

Particle

that

attaches to _enzyme to

help

it function

- Enzyme

regulation

- Competitive

inhibition : Moleule

binds to

actie side

- _{Non-competitive}inhibition : Binds to

the

body

and closes site/_causes conformation

change

-

Allosteric

:

"I does

more things

-Feedback inhibition : If

Enzyme

A

catalyzes

A

to

make B when there's too

much B it

,

·

Using oxygen

_to breakdown

to

make ATP

ghrose

-

GH0j + 0 -> CO2 + 120

to

Chloroplast Outer

i stil

↓ Membrane

① Water enters

thylakoid ^through

Y osmosis

ATP

⑦ ATP and

NADPH are

sent to the

yulea

Calvira _NAPP+

the

NAPP

from ^the splitting

As moves

-

of H20

it activates proteins

#

X

to pump protons

_{to the} thylakold^,

_the stroma

·_Lumenanunbalancedgradient

from

From

Cellular _Respiration Notes

Lactic

-mentation

+

2 NADA

² pyruvate>2want t

*

_actatee want ^P

^⑤ - Lactic

Acid : Animals &

↓

Bacteria

n

#Fe₊

2 NAD

↓

GNADH

2 Pyruvate

#² CO2

2 Acetyldehyde

_-2 Ethanol^War

-2 FAD

↓

G

·

Alcoholic Fermentation : Used

by yeast

and bacteria

2 ATP

-E_NADHT

a

Chemiosmosis

-

- 30-32 _ATP

>

a

_-Protongradientpumps

throug

I

^=toAtal

-

-Organization

Population :

Big

group

of _a

single

species

·

-

Community: ^Bunch

of populations together

·

Ecosystem:

Nonliving ^{stuff that} community

interacts

^withCommunity

-

Biosphere: ^All ecosystems

-

Behavior : In

response

to environment/stimulus

^- Tinbergen_-

questions

What

cases

hehwier?

-^Estivation : sleep through

summer

changes

- Circadian

rhythms: Daily

cycles (24 hour bodily

How does

it develop?

_- ^Habituation : Somethinghappens so

often it's

ignored

·

_-Imprinting_:

:

Child larns

from

an

individuals behavior

Conditioning_·

Classical: _Associating smth

with smth

unrelated

- Aposomatic : _Dangerous

colors

creature and

is

scary

· Babesion: Looksbut not

- Mullerian : Mimic

a

scary

sary

↓

↓

cold-blooded

Warm-blooded

-Basal

Metabolic

-Standard

Rate (BMR)

Metabolic rate(SMR)

↓

Depends on temp

Constant

- More

enagy

-Less

energy

body ump

-More

flexible

-Lives

wh diff

-Thermogenesis: Body generates ^{heat (EX} . Shivering, ^brown

fat)

exchange

- Estotherms

Sweat vaso constriction/dilation

_, counter

current heat

Share w/environment :

,

Behavorial

thermogenesis: More

to heat themselves _up

Life

history

-How animals choose to

reproduce

-↑ _Offspring = ↓Care

-Early offspring-Less

time to _grow

Semel_Heroparity (Once vs

multiple times)

-Energy reduces ¹⁰ % _every trophic ^level

Communities

Interspecific ^interactions

Competition ^(-1-)

Occurs when

^niches overlap

: 2 _species cannot

have same niche_, better one wins

·Competitive

exclusion

principle

-Predation (+

.

/-)

- Biodiversity

richness

#

of

^diff species

-

Species

:

- Relativeabundance :

Balaned

pop, ^of species

(Trees_,

,

)

Foundation _species Make _up

environment

etc.

:

Coral

keystone species: Very ^few

^but large impact

on environment (EX Beavers and dams)

Human intervention

-

Gaps in cell for

moleules

^to pass

through

-

Cell-cell _recognition: Protein

on

one molecule

binds to a _receptor

_on another

- ^Local_Signalling(Paraine):

Cell

releases

molecules (local _regulators) which diffuse to

receptor

on

^others (EX _Synaptic

Signaling

- Long

^distance signaling

(Endowine) : Hormones

releas into

bloodstream which takes it _everywhere

Signal

Transduction

chain

^of proteins ^for a

response

- Also

known as _{phosphorylation} cascade

-Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic

^↳ Receptor on outside

^↳ Receptor on inside

-G-Protein _Coupled

Receptor ^(GPCR) : G-protein

is

activated

with substrate

- ReceptorTyrosine

Kinuse (RTK) :

When molecules

bind to

^two enzymes,

they come together

^and phosphorylate

tyrosine

through

- Ligand-gatedion

channels : When

substrate binds_,

ions

are

allowed

Desmosomes :

Two cells

attached

_by a "rivet"

_-Gapjunction:

Two cells

together_,

_gap between

-

Tightjunction: ^{Two cells} packed so right waters

can't get through

- Cellular_Responses

based

-Homeostasis : Balanced

on

conditions

_NegativeFeedback :

Actions

to

maintain

certain threshold

Interphose : ^Living_{a growing}

:

Grow

3

time

G _:

% of

-

90

Poplicate ^DNA

-Gy : Grow

-

Dividing

Mitosls :

Prophase : Centrosomes_go opposite

2n

- _Motephuse:Chromosomes allud to both

side

↓

- _Anuphuse:Chromatics

_split apart

Telophase

: ^cell pinches

24

-

-Metaphase : Komologous

chromosomes _allign

at center

- Anaphase1 : Chromosomes

more

to

opposite pairs

- In mirosis it is

chromatids

Telophase : Cytokinesis splits if

,

Teophase

Prophase

11

. Metaphase

, Anaphase

11

is mitosis

/1

and

11

- Ligand-gated

ion

channels : _Open

_or close

an ion

channel when

a ligad

binds

- Catalyticreceptors : Enymatic

active site

on

numbine

- G-protein:^Bind

diff.

version of

a

G-protein

on

the intraceler

side _to

^have secondary

UnitAddition_-

4

Review

^to respond to env changes

-

Cell communication _primary use is

-

pathway

Signal

Signal

transduction

:

from cell surface

made to cellular

response

Typ_-

es of signaling

Paracrine: _Narby

- ^Autocrine:_Signalto same

cell that released

hormone

Endocrine: Travels _through blood

Synaptic: Ban neurons

- _Ligand: Moleulebirds

specifically to

receptor ^to trigger signal

Knowledge

#EssentialP

essroom

->Hydrolysis ^& Dehydration

Synthesis

-Hydrolysis :

Breaks down

polymers

by

adding

water

to clewe covalent bonds

-Dehydration Synthesis : Removes

water to

create

covalent

bonds between _monomers

Chromosomal

_Changes in Mitosis

and

Meiosis

- Non-disjunction(Trisomy

2

-When

homologous chromosomes

fail to

separate

properly

-I

gametes

have _an

extra

chromosome_,

I

are

missing

chromosomes

^Sister chromatics fail to _separate

² normal_,

I

extra_, I

less

-Operons in

Gene

Regulation

that are transcribed _together

^-Operons are _gene

clusters

in

prokaryotes

-Promoter : DNA

sequence

where

RNA

polymerase

binds

to

start

transcription

- Operator : ^DNAseyment

where

repressor protein

can bind

to

^block transcription