Comprehensive Study Notes: Oxford Latin Course Part I
Textbook Overview and Publication Information
Title: Oxford Latin Course, Part I (Full Color, Second Edition)
Authors: Maurice Balme & James Morwood
Publisher: Oxford University Press (198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016)
Publication Date / Copyright: 1996 Oxford University Press
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN):
Paperback Edition:
Hardback Edition:
Production & Typography: Typeset and designed by Positif Press, Oxford; printed in Italy by G. Canale & C. S.p.A.
Illustrations & Cartoons: Cartoons by Cathy Balme; illustrations by Peter Connolly and Richard Hook; maps by John Brennan.
Course Outline and Narrative Summary
Narrative Arc:
Part I: Details the childhood, family life, and early education of the Roman poet Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) in his hometown of Venusia, located in south-east Italy.
Part II: Follows Quintus and his father to Rome for secondary education under the schoolmaster Orbilius, followed by university studies in philosophy at the Academy in Athens, until civil war erupts and he joins the army of Marcus Brutus.
Part III: Covers Horace's defeat at the Battle of Philippi, his return to Italy as a Treasury clerk, his poetic emergence, his friendship with Virgil and patron Maecenas, and his relationship with Emperor Augustus.
Historical Context: Horace lived through the fall of the Roman Republic, the assassination of Julius Caesar, and the establishment of the Roman Empire under Augustus.
Linguistic Value:
English is a member of the Indo-European language family alongside Latin, European languages, Persian, and Indian languages.
While English descends directly from Anglo-Saxon, approximately half of modern English vocabulary consists of words borrowed directly or indirectly from Latin (e.g., Latin parēns = English parent; Latin accusō = English I accuse).
Studying Latin provides insights into English spelling, vocabulary, and grammar, and facilitates the acquisition of Romance languages (Italian, Spanish, French).
Latin Pronunciation, Phonetics, and Orthography
Consonants:
is always hard, as in cat (never soft as in nice).
is always hard, as in God (except when followed by ; is pronounced , as in hangnail; e.g., magnus is pronounced mangnus).
is always sounded, as in hope.
functions as both a vowel and a consonant; as a consonant, it sounds like English (e.g., iam is pronounced yam).
is always followed by , sounded as in English quick.
is rolled, as in Italian or Spanish.
is always voiceless, as in sit (never like in rose).
is pronounced like English (e.g., vīdī sounds like weedee).
Double consonants are pronounced individually (e.g., ille is pronounced il-le with the sounded twice).
Vowels:
(short): as in English cup (not as in cap).
(long): as in English father.
(short): as in English pet.
(long): as in English aim (or French gai).
(short): as in English dip.
(long): as in English deep.
(short): as in English dog.
(long): as in English foal (or French beau).
(short): as in English put.
(long): as in English fool.
Diphthongs:
: pronounced like English high.
: pronounced like English how.
: pronounced like English eight.
: pronounced (both vowels sounded separately).
: pronounced like English boy.
: pronounced (both vowels sounded separately).
Chapter 1: Scintilla and Horatia at Home
Introductory Sentence: Vītam nārrāmus Quīntī Horātī Flaccī. lēctor, attende et fābulā gaudē. ("We are telling the story of the life of Quintus Horatius Flaccus. Reader, pay attention and enjoy the story.")
Primary Latin Text:
Quīntus est puer Rōmānus. Quīntus in Apūliā habitat; Apūlia est in Italiā. Scintilla est fēmina Rōmāna; in casā labōrat. Horātia puella Rōmāna est; in casā cēnat.
Scintilla in casā labōrat; fessa est. Horātia in casam intrat; iēiūna est. sed cēna nōn parāta est. Scintilla festīnat et mox cēna est parāta. 'ecce!' inquit, 'cēna est parāta.' puella laeta est; ad mēnsam festīnat et avidē cēnat. postrīdiē Scintilla ad tabernās ambulat. Horātia in casā labōrat. mox Scintilla redit et in casam intrat. ecce, parāta est cēna. Scintilla laeta est.
Vocabulary 1:
Verbs: ambulat (he/she walks), cēnat (he/she dines), festīnat (he/she hurries), intrat (he/she enters), labōrat (he/she works).
Adjectives: fessa (tired), laeta (happy), parāta (ready).
Adverbs: mox (soon), nōn (not).
Nouns: casa (house, cottage), cēna (dinner), fēmina (woman), puella (girl).
Conjunctions: et (and), sed (but).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 1):
Word Order: The verb frequently appears at the end of a Latin sentence.
Articles: Latin possesses no definite article ("the") or indefinite article ("a"/"an"). Context determines translation.
Implied Subjects: Verbs contain embedded subjects (e.g., labōrat = "he/she works").
Present Tense Translation: Single Latin forms represent both simple and continuous English present tenses (e.g., labōrat = "works" or "is working").
Sentence Pattern 1 (Subject + Action Verb): Scintilla labōrat ("Scintilla is working").
Sentence Pattern 2 (Subject + Linking Verb + Subjective Complement): Horātia est puella ("Horatia is a girl"); Horātia fessa est ("Horatia is tired"). The complement can be a noun or an adjective.
Historical Background — Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace):
Born on December 8, 65 BC, in Venusia, Apulia (southeast Italy).
Son of a freedman (lībertus) who worked as an auctioneer's agent (coāctor) and owned a small farm.
Educated in Rome at the school of Orbilius, studied rhetoric, and attended the Academy in Athens at age 20.
Fought as a military tribune (tribūnus mīlitum) under Marcus Brutus at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC).
Worked as a clerk in the Treasury (scrība quaestōrius) upon returning to Rome.
Introduced by Virgil to Gaius Maecenas, who gifted him a farm in the Sabine Hills.
Literary Corpus: 4 books of Odes (Carmina), 2 books of Satires (Sermōnēs), 2 books of Epistles (Epistulae), and the Ars Poētica.
Died on November 27, 8 BC, at age 56, shortly after Maecenas.
Key Quotations: carpe diem, quam minimum crēdula posterō ("seize the day, trusting as little as possible in tomorrow"); exēgī monumentum aere perennius ("I have raised a monument more lasting than bronze").
Chapter 2: Argus Steals the Dinner
Primary Latin Text:
Scintilla in casā labōrat; cēnam parat. Horātia in viā cessat. Scintilla fīliam vocat. puella casam intrat et Scintillam iuvat; aquam in casam portat. Scintilla fīliam laudat. cēna parāta est. Scintilla fīliam vocat et fābulam nārrat. Horātia fābulam laeta audit. mox Argus casam intrat. cēnam spectat; subitō eam rapit et dēvorat. Scintilla īrāta est; Argus in viam fugit. Scintilla aliam cēnam parat.
Vocabulary 2:
Verbs: iuvat (he/she helps), laudat (he/she praises), nārrat (he/she tells), parat (he/she prepares), portat (he/she carries), salūtat (he/she greets), vocat (he/she calls).
Nouns: aqua (water), fābula (story), fīlia (daughter), via (road, way).
Adjective: īrāta (angry).
Adverb: subitō (suddenly).
Preposition: in (in, into).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 2):
Sentence Pattern 3 (Subject + Direct Object + Transitive Verb): puella Scintillam salūtat ("The girl greets Scintilla").
Cases: Nominative indicates the subject (ending in -a in 1st declension); Accusative indicates the direct object (ending in -am in 1st declension singular).
First Declension Paradigm (Singular): Nominative: puell-a; Accusative: puell-am.
Historical & Cultural Background — Women in the Roman World:
Daily Duties: Lower-class rural women worked long hours spinning and weaving wool, fetching water from public fountains, cooking meals, and performing domestic tasks.
Marriage Practices: Arranged marriages were standard. Legal marriage ages were 12 for girls and 14 for boys; most girls married before age 16 (e.g., Cicero's daughter Tullia was engaged at age 9 and married three times before her death at age 30).
Social Rights & Influence: Women were styled domina in their households. They could attend dinner parties, public shows, festivals, and temples, provided they were escorted. Wealthy women maintained independence due to dowry protection laws during divorce.
Chapter 3: Quintus Helps His Father
Primary Latin Text:
postrīdiē Scintilla Quīntum vocat; mittit eum ad agrum. Quīntus cibum ad Flaccum portat; nam Flaccus diū in agrō labōrat et fessus est. puer ad agrum festīnat; Argum sēcum dūcit. mox Quīntus agrum intrat; Flaccum videt et vocat. Flaccus fīlium audit et ad eum ambulat; in terrā sedet et cibum cōnsumit. Quīntus domum nōn redit sed in agrō manet et Flaccum iuvat. olīvam ascendit et olīvās dēcutit. Flaccus olīvās colligit. subitō lāpsat Quīntus et ad terram cadit. Flaccus anxius est et ad eum currit, sed Quīntus nōn saucius est; surgit et domum redit.
Quīntus domum redit et Scintillam salūtat; Argum in hortum dūcit et Horātiam vocat. Horātia in hortum festīnat; laeta est quod Quīntus adest. Flaccus ab agrō redit; fessus est; in casā sedet et quiescit. mox 'Quīntus' inquit 'puer bonus est. in agrō manet et mē iuvat.' Scintilla laeta est, quod Flaccus puerum laudat. cēnam celeriter parat; ubi parāta est cēna, Horātiam et Quīntum in casam vocat. Quīntus laetus est quod cēna parāta est; in casam festīnat.
Vocabulary 3:
Verbs: ascendit (he/she climbs), cadit (he/she falls), currit (he/she runs), dūcit (he/she leads), inquit (he/she says), manet (he/she stays, waits), mittit (he/she sends), redit (he/she returns), sedet (he/she sits), videt (he/she sees).
Nouns: ager (field), cibus (food), colōnus (farmer), fīlius (son), puer (boy, child), terra (earth, land).
Adjective: anxius, -a, -um (anxious).
Pronoun: eum (him), eam (her).
Preposition: ad (to, towards).
Conjunction: nam (for).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 3):
Second Declension Masculine Nouns: Nominative singular ends in -us or -er; Accusative singular ends in -um (e.g., colōn-us / colōn-um; pu-er / puer-um; ag-er / agr-um).
Four Verb Conjugations (3rd Person Singular Endings):
1st Conjugation (stems in -ā): para-t
2nd Conjugation (stems in -ē): mone-t, vide-t
3rd Conjugation (consonant stems): reg-it, mitt-it
4th Conjugation (stems in -ī): audi-t
Grammatical Gender: Nouns are Masculine, Feminine, or Neuter. 1st Declension nouns in -a are mostly Feminine; 2nd Declension nouns in -us/-er are Masculine; 2nd Declension nouns in -um are Neuter.
Adjective Agreement: Adjectives must match their governing nouns in gender, number, and case (e.g., puella bona, puer laetus, puerum īrātum).
Historical & Cultural Background — Slaves and Freedmen:
Sources of Slavery: War captives, victims of piracy and kidnapping, exposed infants, and commercial slave trading (the slave market on Delos handled up to slaves in a single day).
Legal Status & Treatment: Slaves (servī) had no legal rights, were addressed as puer, and were subject to harsh corporal punishment or execution (e.g., Vedius Pollio feeding a slave to lampreys; Emperor Hadrian blinding a secretary with a pen; Cato the Elder advising the sale of old/sick slaves).
Manumission & Freedom: Slaves could save personal money (peculium) to buy freedom, or be freed (manumissio) by will or decree. Freedmen (lībertīnī) became Roman citizens and entered client-patron relationships with former owners.
Prominent Freedmen: Tiro (Cicero’s secretary); P. Decimius Eros Merula of Assisi (physician who bought freedom for sesterces, paid for a priesthood of Augustus, funded public road paving, and left a large fortune).
Chapter 4: At the Fountain
Primary Latin Text:
cotīdiē ubi Flaccus ad agrum prōcēdit, Scintilla et Horātia ad fontem festīnant. magnās urnās portant. ubi ad fontem veniunt, multae fēminae iam adsunt. aliae aquam dūcunt, aliae urnās plēnās portant. Scintilla eās salūtat et diū colloquium cum amīcīs facit. Horātia cum puellīs lūdit. tandem Scintilla aquam dūcit et domum redit. Horātia quoque aquam dūcit et post Scintillam festīnat. urna magna est; Horātia eam aegrē portat. subitō lāpsat; urna ad terram cadit; aqua in terram effluit. Horātia in terrā sedet; 'heu, heu,' inquit; 'urna frācta est.' Scintillam vocat; illa redit et 'ō fīlia,' inquit, 'cūr in terrā sedēs? surge et aliam urnam ā casā portā.' Horātia surgit; ad casam redit et aliam urnam ad fontem portat. aquam dūcit et domum festīnat. ubi Horātia domum redit, Quīntus iam ad lūdum prōcēdit. lentē ambulat et saepe cōnsistit. Horātia festīnat et mox eum videt. 'manē, Quīnte,' inquit. manet Quīntus; Horātia ad eum currit. ad lūdum ūnā prōcēdunt.
ubi cēna confecta est, Flaccus in viam exit et ad tabernam ambulat. ubi tabernam intrat, multōs amīcōs videt. illī eum salūtant. Flaccus sedet et vīnum bibit. amīcī colloquium diū faciunt; miserī sunt; multās querēlās faciunt. Seleucus 'heu, heu,' inquit; 'diū nōn pluit; agrī siccī sunt.' Chrysanthus 'cibus cārus est,' inquit; 'colōnī miserī sunt, sed nēmō eōs iuvāt.' Philērus 'duovirī' inquit 'colōnōs nōn cūrant.' aliī aliās querēlās faciunt. sed Flaccus eōs nōn audit; fessus est; interdum dormit, interdum vīnum bibit. tandem surgit et domum redit.
Vocabulary 4:
Verbs: accēdit (approaches), adest (is present), cūrat (cares for), dormit (sleeps), prōcēdit (goes forward), surgit (rises), venit (comes).
Nouns: amīcus (friend), lūdus (school).
Adjectives: magnus, -a, -um (great, big), miser, misera, miserum (miserable), multus, -a, -um (much, many).
Pronouns: eōs, eās (them), ille, illa (he, she / that).
Adverbs: cūr? (why?), diū (for a long time), iam (now, already), lentē (slowly), saepe (often), tandem (at last).
Conjunctions: quod (because), ubi (when).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 4):
Singular vs. Plural Verb Forms: Singular verbs end in -t; plural verbs end in -nt.
Verb Plural Paradigm: 1st Conj: para-nt; 2nd Conj: mone-nt; 3rd Conj: reg-unt; 4th Conj: audi-unt; sum: sunt.
Noun Plural Paradigms:
1st Declension Nominative Plural: -ae (puell-ae); Accusative Plural: -ās (puell-ās).
2nd Declension Nominative Plural: -ī (colōn-ī, puer-ī); Accusative Plural: -ōs (colōn-ōs, puer-ōs).
Demonstratives as Pronouns: ille / illa are used to indicate a shift in subject ("the former", "the latter", "he", "she").
Historical & Cultural Background — Venusia and Pompeii:
Roman Colonies (Colōniae): Established to secure territory, relieve urban population pressure, and settle military veterans. Venusia was established as a colony in 261 BC and expanded in 200 BC along the Via Appia.
Municipal Governance: Modeled on Rome; governed by two annual elected chief magistrates (duōvirī) who presided over the local senate (decuriōnēs).
Urban Infrastructure: Paved roads, raised stepping stones across streets, public fountains on street corners, public baths, amphitheaters, and commercial taverns (tabernae).
Chapter 5: Market Day
Primary Latin Text:
postrīdiē Flaccus et Scintilla māne surgunt; nam nūndinae sunt. Flaccus magnum saccum lānae portat; Scintilla olīvās et fīcōs in calathōs pōnit. Horātia in hortō sedet. mox Scintilla Horātiam vocat; 'quid facis, Horātia?' inquit; 'parāta es? ad forum prōcēdimus.' Horātia respondet: 'parāta sum; veniō statim.' Flaccus lānam portat, Scintilla olīvās, Horātia fīcōs; festīnant ad forum. ubi ad forum adveniunt, multī virī et fēminae iam adsunt; per tōtum forum tabernae sunt. colōnī clāmant et mercēs suās laudant. aliī ūvās vendunt, aliī lānam, aliī fīcōs. Flaccus Scintillam et fīliam dūcit ad locum vacuum; tabernam ērigunt et mercēs expōnunt. mox amīcus ad tabernam accēdit et Flaccum salūtat; lānam spectat. Flaccus 'lāna bona est' inquit 'nec cāra. tōtum saccum tribus dēnāriīs vendō.' amīcus 'nimium rogās, Flacce,' inquit; 'duōs dēnāriōs dō.' Flaccus concēdit et saccum trādit. intereā fēmina ad Scintillam accēdit et 'quantī' rogat 'olīvae sunt?' illa respondet: 'illās olīvās ūnō dēnāriō vendō.' fēmina olīvās emit. alia fēmina accēdit et fīcōs diū spectat; Horātia rogat 'cūr fīcōs sīc spectās?' illa 'illōs fīcōs sīc spectō,' inquit 'quod malī sunt.' Horātia īrāta est et respondet: 'quid dīcis? malōs fīcōs nōn vendimus. fīcī bonī sunt.' sed fēmina fīcōs nōn emit. mox omnēs mercēs vendunt. Scintilla laeta est; 'omnēs mercēs vendidimus,' inquit; 'iam ad tabernam piscātōriam prōcēdō.'
Playlet — To the Fish Stall (Ad Tabernam Piscātōriam):
Characters: Scintilla, Flaccus, Horātia, Piscātor.
Flaccus complains that fish are expensive and smell (olent). The fisherman defends his stock (ūnō dēnāriō vendō). Horātia objects to the price, but Scintilla purchases the fish for 1 denarius.
Vocabulary 5:
Verbs: advenit (arrives), clāmat (shouts), dat (gives), dīcit (says), emit (buys), facit (makes/does), iacet (lies down), pōnit (places/puts), respondet (answers), rogat (asks), spectat (watches), trādit (hands over).
Nouns: hortus (garden).
Adjectives: alius, alia, aliud (other/another), bonus (good), duo (two), malus (bad), trēs, tria (three), ūnus (one).
Prepositions: cum (+ ablative: with), in (+ ablative: in/on), per (+ accusative: through/throughout).
Pronoun/Adverb/Conjunction: quid? (what?), statim (at once), nec/neque (and not, nor).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 5):
Present Tense Personal Endings (All Conjugations):
Singular: 1st person -ō ("I"), 2nd person -s ("you"), 3rd person -t ("he/she/it").
Plural: 1st person -mus ("we"), 2nd person -tis ("you"), 3rd person -nt ("they").
Paradigm of sum, esse (Present Tense):
Singular: sum (I am), es (you are), est (he/she/it is).
Plural: sumus (we are), estis (you are), sunt (they are).
Ablative Case Introduction: Used with specific prepositions (in = in/on; cum = with). 1st Declension Ablative Singular ends in long -\bar{a}; 2nd Declension Ablative Singular ends in long -\bar{o}.
Preposition Rules: Motion towards uses Accusative (in casam, ad agrum); Location where or motion from uses Ablative (in casā, ab agrō, ē casā).
Historical Background — Farming and Market Days (Nūndinae):
Agricultural Tasks: Smallholders cultivated olives, grapevines, grains, and legumes. May tasks included weeding grain, shearing sheep, washing wool, breaking in bullocks, cutting vetch, and performing sacrifices to Mercury and Flora. September tasks included pitching wine jars, picking apples, loosening tree roots, and feasting for Minerva.
Nūndinae Structure: Held every eighth day (counted inclusively as every ninth day, ). Farmers brought produce to town; schools were closed.
Latifundia Economy: Large agricultural estates relied on chain gangs of slave labor (latifundia); Caecilius Metellus owned slaves. Varro categorized farm implements into three groups: vōcāle (speaking = slaves), semivōcāle (mute-speaking = cattle), and ināvōcāle (voiceless = tools).
Chapter 6: The School of Flavius
Primary Latin Text:
Quīntus ad lūdum lentē ambulat et saepe cōnsistit, sed Horātia celeriter prōcēdit; prior ad lūdum advenit et puellās salūtat quae prope iānuam manent; longum colloquium cum Iūliā facit, puellā valdē pulchrā. Quīntus in viā amīcum videt, nōmine Gāium; eum vocat. Gāius ad lūdum festīnat sed ubi Quīntum audit, cōnsistit et 'quid facis, Quīnte?' inquit; 'festīnāre dēbēs. sērō ad lūdum venīs. ego festīnō.' Quīntus respondet: 'nōn sērō venīmus, Gāī.' Gāium iubet manēre. ille anxius est sed manet. itaque Quīntus et Gāius lentē ad lūdum prōcēdunt. cēterī puerī iam adsunt. magister ē iānuā exit et eōs iubet intrāre et sedēre; puerī lūdere cupiunt, puellae labōrāre. magister ubi nec Quīntum nec Gāium videt, īrātus est et clāmat: 'cūr nōn adsunt Quīntus et Gāius? cūr sērō veniunt?' tandem intrant Quīntus et Gāius et magistrum salūtant. sed ille clāmat: 'cūr sērō venītis? malī puerī estis.' iubet eōs celeriter sedēre. diū sedent puerī et magistrum audiunt; diū clāmat magister et litterās docet. puerī litterās in tabulīs scrībunt; magister tabulās spectat et litterās corrigit. Decimus, puer magnus et stultus, litterās aegrē discit. magister eum iubet tabulam ad sē ferre; tabulam spectat. 'Decime,' inquit, 'asinus es; litterās nōn rēctē scrībis.' Decimus 'errās, magister,' inquit; 'asinus nōn sum. litterās rēctē scrībō. ecce!' litterās iterum scrībit. sed Flavius 'impudēns es, Decime,' inquit 'et asinus; litterās nōn rēctē scrībis.' diū labōrant puerī. tandem Iūlia 'dīligenter labōrāmus, magister,' inquit; 'litterās bene scrībimus; fessī sumus. itaque dēbēs nōs domum dīmittere.' Flavius eam benignē spectat. 'ita vērō,' inquit; 'dīligenter labōrātis, puerī. itaque vōs iubeō domum abīre.' cēterī laetī domum festīnant, sed Flavius Decimum iubet in lūdō manēre. 'tū, Decime,' inquit, 'dēbēs litterās iterum scrībere.' itaque Decimus in lūdō miser sedet dum cēterī in viā lūdunt.
Vocabulary 6:
Verbs: cōnstituō, cōnstituere (decide), cupiō, cupere (want/desire), dēbeō, dēbēre (ought/must), dīmittō, dīmittere (send away), doceō, docēre (teach), eō, īre (go), exeō, exīre (go out), iubeō, iubēre (order), lūdō, lūdere (play), scrībō, scrībere (write).
Nouns: domus (home), iānua (door), littera (letter), magister (master).
Adjectives: cēterī, cēterae, cētera (the rest), meus, -a, -um (my), tuus, -a, -um (your).
Pronouns: ego (I), tū (you).
Adverbs: celeriter (quickly), dīligenter (carefully/hard), iterum (again).
Preposition / Conjunction: prope (+ acc: near), itaque (and so), nec…nec (neither…nor).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 6):
Infinitives: Formed with ending -re added to present stem: 1st Conj: parā-re; 2nd Conj: monē-re; 3rd Conj: reg-ere; 4th Conj: audī-re.
Infinitive Construction: Used with verbs like cupiō (desire to), dēbeō (ought to), iubeō (order to), cōnstituō (decide to).
Third Conjugation -iō Verbs: Present forms behave like 4th conjugation in some persons (capiō, capiunt), but retain short -e- in infinitive (capere).
Vocative Case: Used for direct address. Identical to Nominative in all declensions except 2nd Declension singular nouns in -us, which change to -e (e.g., Quīnte). 2nd Declension nouns in -ius change to -ī (e.g., fīlī).
Question Formation: Introduced by interrogatives (cūr, quomodo, ubi, quis, quid, quantus), or enclitic -ne (neutral question), or nōnne (expects "yes").
Historical Background — Roman Education:
Primary Stage (Lūdus Litterārius): Ages 7 to 11/12. Instructed by litterātor or magister in reading, writing (on wax tablets, tabulae, using a stylus), and arithmetic (abacus and finger counting). Accompanied by a slave tutor (paedagōgus).
Secondary Stage (Grammaticus): Ages 12 to 16. Greek and Latin literature, grammar, history, geography, and astronomy.
Tertiary Stage (Rhētor): Public speaking, law, and rhetoric for political careers.
Chapter 7: Flavius' Story: The Siege of Troy
Primary Latin Text:
Agamemnōn, rēx Mycēnārum, omnēs prīncipēs Graecōrum convocat; iubet eōs bellum in Trōiānōs parāre. frāter eius, Menelāus, adest; Achillēs, herōum fortissimus, venit ā Thessaliā; adest Ulixēs ab Ithacā cum comitibus, et multī aliī. magnum exercitum parant et multās nāvēs. ad urbem Trōiam nāvigant et Trōiānōs oppugnant. sed Trōiānī urbem fortiter dēfendunt. decem annōs Graecī urbem obsident sed eam capere nōn possunt. tandem Agamemnōn et Achillēs in rixam cadunt. Achillēs īrātus est; nōn diūtius pugnat sed prope nāvēs manet ōtiōsus. Trōiānī iam Graecōs vincunt et pellunt ad nāvēs. Agamemnōn amīcōs ad Achillem mittit quī eum iubent ad pugnam redīre. illī 'ō Achillēs.' inquiunt. 'Trōiānī nōs vincunt et pellunt ad nāvēs. in magnō perīculō sumus. tū dēbēs ad pugnam redīre et comitēs dēfendere.' sed ille amīcōs nōn audit neque ab īrā dēsistit. mox Trōiānī nāvēs oppugnant et incendunt. Patroclus, amīcus cārus, ad Achillem accēdit et 'Trōiānī iam nāvēs incendunt,' inquit. 'dēbēs ab īrā dēsistere et amīcōs iuvāre. sī tū pugnāre nōn vīs, dēbēs mē cum comitibus tuīs in pugnam mittere.' itaque Achillēs invītus Patroclum in pugnam mittit. ille arma Achillis induit et comitēs in pugnam dūcit. Trōiānī, ubi arma Achillis vident, territī sunt et ad urbem fugiunt. Patroclus in eōs currit et multōs occīdit. sed Hector, fortissimus Trōiānōrum, resistit et Patroclum in pugnam vocat. hastam iacit et Patroclum interficit.
Vocabulary 7:
Verbs: capere (take), convocāre (call together), dēfendere (defend), fugere (flee), iacere (throw), nāvigāre (sail), occīdere (kill), oppugnāre (attack), pugnāre (fight), resistere (resist), vincere (conquer).
Nouns: canis, canis, c. (dog), comes, comitis, c. (comrade), frāter, frātris, m. (brother), īra, -ae, f. (anger), nāvis, nāvis, f. (ship), pater, patris, m. (father), princeps, principis, m. (prince/leader), pugna, -ae, f. (fight), rēx, rēgis, m. (king), urbs, urbis, f. (city).
Adjectives: cārus, -a, -um (dear), fortis, forte (brave), omnis, omne (all).
Adverb / Preposition: fortiter (bravely), ā/ab (+ abl: from).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 7):
Third Declension Nouns:
Consonant Stems (e.g., rēx, rēgis): Sing: Nom: rēx, Acc: rēg-em, Abl: rēg-e. Plur: Nom/Acc: rēg-ēs, Abl: rēg-ibus.
i-Stems (e.g., nāvis, nāvis): Sing: Nom: nāv-is, Acc: nāv-em, Abl: nāv-e. Plur: Nom/Acc: nāv-ēs, Gen: nāv-ium, Abl: nāv-ibus.
Third Declension Adjectives: Sing: Nom M/F: fortis, N: forte; Acc M/F: fortem, N: forte; Abl M/F/N: fortī. Plur: Nom/Acc M/F: fortēs, N: fortia; Abl: fortibus.
Irregular Verbs possum and eō:
possum, posse (be able / can): possum, potes, potest, possumus, potestis, possunt.
eō, īre (go): eō, īs, it, īmus, ītis, eunt.
Literary Background — Homer and the Iliad (Part 1):
Homer: Epic poet from Ionia (western Turkey), traditionally blind, composed the Iliad and the Odyssey (c. 8th century BC).
Mythological Background: Wedding of Peleus and Thetis; Eris drops the Golden Apple ("For the Most Beautiful"); Judgment of Paris (choosing Venus over Juno and Minerva in exchange for Helen of Sparta).
Narrative Arc: Abduction of Helen by Paris; Greek expedition led by Agamemnon and Menelaus; 10-year siege of Troy; quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles over Briseis; retreat of Achilles; death of Patroclus at the hands of Hector.
Chapter 8: The Death of Hector
Primary Latin Text:
Achillēs, ubi Patroclus mortuus est, eum diū lūget; Hectorem vindicāre cupit. redit ad pugnam et comitēs in Trōiānōs dūcit. illī, ubi Achillem vident, territī sunt; in urbem fugiunt. Hector sōlus extrā mūrōs manet. pater Priamus, rēx Trōiae, et māter Hecuba eum vident ē mūrīs; fīlium vocant; Priamus clāmat: 'Hector, nōlī Achillem in pugnam vocāre; nōn potes eum vincere. urbem intrā; festīnā.' māter clāmat: 'fīlī cāre, nōlī extrā mūrōs manēre; nōlī mortem obīre; māter tua misera tē ōrat.' sed Hector eōs nōn audit; urbem intrāre nōn vult. Trōiānōs vocat et 'portās claudite, Trōiānī,' inquit; 'festīnāte. ego sōlus maneō extrā mūrōs et Achillem ad pugnam vocō.' Trōiānī invītī portās claudunt. Hector sōlus Achillem exspectat. ille propius accēdit. tum Hector subitō timet. tergum vertit et fugit. Achillēs celeriter currit sed eum capere nōn potest. ter circum mūrōs fugit Hector, sed tandem resistit; sē vertit et Achillem in pugnam vocat. ille prōcēdit et hastam in Hectorem conicit. sed Hector hastam vītat. deinde Hector hastam conicit et Achillis parmam percutit. sed Achillēs incolumis est; nam parma eum servat. deinde Achillēs hastam summā vī conicit; volat hasta per auram et Hectorem trānsfīgit. ille ad terram cadit mortuus. accurrit Achillēs et dīrum facinus facit. Hectorem mortuum ad currum alligat et circum mūrōs trahit. pater et māter ē mūrīs spectant. Hecuba clāmat: 'ō Achillēs,' inquit, 'tandem ab īrā dēsiste; fīlium nōbīs redde.' sed Achillēs eam nōn audit; Hectorem ad nāvēs trahit et eum relinquit in terrā iacentem.
Vocabulary 8:
Verbs: coniciō, conicere (hurl), exspectō, exspectāre (wait for), possum, posse (be able/can), reddō, reddere (give back/return), relinquō, relinquere (leave behind), servō, servāre (save), timeō, timēre (fear), vertō, vertere (turn).
Nouns: hasta, -ae, f. (spear), māter, mātris, f. (mother), mors, mortis, f. (death), mūrus, -ī, m. (wall), porta, -ae, f. (gate).
Adjectives: incolumis, incolume (unharmed/safe), mortuus, -a, -um (dead), sōlus, -a, -um (alone), territus, -a, -um (terrified).
Adverbs / Conjunction / Prepositions: bene (well), hīc (here), hūc (hither), -que (and), circum (+ acc: round), ē/ex (+ abl: out of/from).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 8):
Imperative Mood (Direct Commands):
Singular Imperatives: Strip -re from the present infinitive: parā!, monē!, rege!, cape!, audī!.
Plural Imperatives: Add -te to the singular stem: parāte!, monēte!, regite!, capite!, audīte!.
Negative Commands (Prohibitions): Expressed using nōlī (singular) or nōlīte (plural) + present infinitive (e.g., nōlī manēre, nōlīte clāmāre).
Enclitic -que: Appended to the second word to join two coordinate elements (e.g., māter paterque = mother and father).
Literary Background — The Ransom of Hector (Iliad, Part 2):
Achilles defiles Hector's body by dragging it behind his chariot. Apollo protects the corpse from decay.
Priam visits Achilles' tent at night, guided by Mercury, to ransom his son's body.
Achilles relents, remembering his own aged father Peleus; a truce is granted for Hector's funeral.
Chapter 9: The Fall of Troy
Primary Latin Text:
decem annōs Graecī Trōiānōs obsident sed urbem capere nōn possunt. tandem Agamemnōn, rēx Graecōrum, dēspērat; omnēs prīncipēs convenīre iubet et 'decem annōs iam Trōiam obsidēmus,' inquit; 'saepe Trōiānōs in pugnā vincimus sed urbem capere nōn possumus. ego dēspērō. quid facere dēbēmus? domumne redīre dēbēmus? quid vōs monētis?' cēterī prīncipēs tacent, sed Ulixēs 'ego nōn dēspērō,' inquit; 'cōnsilium novum habeō. audīte mē.' omnēs prīncipēs cōnsilium Ulixis attentē audiunt; cōnsilium laetī accipiunt. equum ligneum faciunt, ingentem; multōs virōs fortēs in equum immittunt. illī in equum ascendunt et in ventre equī sē cēlant. cēterī nāvēs cōnscendunt et nāvigant ad īnsulam vīcīnam. prīmā lūce Trōiānī nāvēs Graecōrum vident abeuntēs; gaudent quod Graecī nōn adsunt, gaudent quod pugnae tandem confectae sunt. ē portīs urbis currunt ad ōram dēsertam; equum ingentem spectant in ōrā stantem. aliī 'equum dēbēmus in urbem dūcere,' inquiunt. aliī 'equō nōlīte crēdere,' inquiunt; 'timēmus Graecōrum dōna. fortasse Graecī in eō cēlātī sunt.' tandem cōnstituunt eum in urbem dūcere. omnēs laetī eum per portās trahunt et in arce pōnunt. deinde epulās faciunt et multum vīnum bibunt. nox adest. dormiunt Trōiānī. Graecī quī in īnsulā sunt nāvēs cōnscendunt et celeriter ad urbem Trōiam redeunt. eī, quī in equō cēlātī sunt, tacitī exeunt et festīnant ad portās. vigilēs Trōiānōrum dormiunt; ēbriī sunt. Graecī eōs occīdunt; portās celeriter aperiunt et comitēs accipiunt. omnēs in viās urbis currunt. paucī Trōiānōrum resistunt. mox Graecī tōtam urbem capiunt. tandem rēgiam Priamī oppugnant; Priamum et fīliōs eius occīdunt. paucī ēvādunt. sīc Graecī tandem Trōiam capiunt et urbem dēlent.
Aenēās ex urbe Trōiā fugit:
Trōiānōrum paucī ēvādunt; urbem ardentem relinquunt et fugiunt in montēs. inter eōs est Aenēās, princeps Trōiānus; ille patrem et uxōrem et parvum fīlium ē flammis ēripit et ad montēs dūcit. mox aliī ad montēs conveniunt. omnēs dēspērant, sed Aenēās 'Trōia incēnsa est,' inquit, 'sed nōs Trōiānī supersumus. venīte mēcum. novam Trōiam in aliā terrā condere dēbēmus.' illī Aenēam laetī audiunt. montēs relinquunt et ad ōram dēscendunt; nāvēs cōnscendunt et mox ab urbe Trōiā in terrās ignōtās nāvigāmus. diū in undīs errant et multōs labōrēs subeunt. tandem in Italiam veniunt et urbem condunt.
Vocabulary 9:
Verbs: accipiō, accipere (receive), bibō, bibere (drink), cōnscendō, cōnscendere (board a ship), conveniō, convenīre (meet/come together), gaudeō, gaudēre (rejoice), habeō, habēre (have), moneō, monēre (warn/advise), taceō, tacēre (be silent).
Nouns: equus, -ī, m. (horse), īnsula, -ae, f. (island), labor, labōris, m. (work/hardship), nox, noctis, f. (night), uxor, uxōris, f. (wife), vir, virī, m. (man).
Adjectives: ingēns, ingentis (huge), novus, -a, -um (new), parvus, -a, -um (small), paucī, -ae, -a (few), tacitus, -a, -um (silent), tōtus, -a, -um (whole).
Preposition / Adverb: inter (+ acc: among/between), sīc (thus).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 9):
Genitive Case ("of"):
Endings: 1st Declension Sing: -ae, Plur: -\bar{a}rum; 2nd Declension Sing: -\bar{i}, Plur: -\bar{o}rum; 3rd Declension Sing: -is, Plur: -um (Consonant) / -ium (i-Stem).
Possessive Genitive: agri colōnī ("the farmer's field").
Partitive Genitive: multī Trōiānōrum ("many of the Trojans").
Formation of Adverbs: Formed from 1st/2nd declension adjectives using -ē (e.g., lente), and 3rd declension adjectives using -ter (e.g., fortiter).
Literary Background — Virgil and the Aeneid:
Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro, 70–19 BC), born near Mantua. Written between 29 and 19 BC, the Aeneid recounts Aeneas carrying his father Anchises, leading his son Ascanius (Iulus), and losing his wife Creusa during the fall of Troy.
Chapter 10: Polyphemus
Primary Latin Text:
Aenēās et Trōiānī nāvēs cōnscendunt; ab urbe Trōiā in terrās ignōtās nāvigant. diū terram quaerunt ubi novam Trōiam condere possunt; multōs labōrēs, multa perīcula subeunt; saepe dēspērat Aenēās. tandem cōnstituunt ad Italiam nāvigāre. sed ubi ad Siciliam accēdunt, magnum perīculum vix vītant, nam saxa vident ubi habitat Scylla, mōnstrum horribile, et sonitum ingentem audiunt verticis ubi Charybdis undās ēvomit. pater Anchīsēs magnā vōce clāmat: 'fugite; nāvēs ē perīculō ēripite; nam in illīs saxis habitat Scylla.' Aenēās patris verba audit et saxa vītat. sīc vix incolumēs ē perīculō ēvādunt. ubi ad Siciliam veniunt, montem Aetnam vident; nāvēs ad terram dīrigunt et sub noctem ad lītus īnsulae adveniunt. sub monte in lītore quiescunt. mōns Aetna per noctem tonat; flammās et saxa in caelum prōicit. Trōiānī territī sunt et ānxii diem exspectant. festīnant nāvēs cōnscendere cum hominem vident, quī ad lītus currit. Trōiānōs vocat; accurrit ad eōs et 'servāte mē,' inquit, 'vōs ōrō. ego Graecus sum, comes Ulixis. cēterī fūgērunt. ego sōlus maneō. fugite, miserī, fugite. Cyclōpēs hīc habitant, gigantēs immānēs, quī hominēs edunt. nōlīte mē Cyclōpibus trādere. servāte mē, accipite mē in nāvem.' subitō Trōiānī Polyphēmum vident, gigantem ingentem. ille ovēs dē monte dūcit. caecus est; lentē dēscendit; in viā saepe lāpsat. Aenēās territus est. 'currite ad nāvēs,' inquit; 'festīnāte!' Trōiānī comitem Ulixis accipiunt et fugiunt ad nāvēs. Polyphēmus iam ad lītus advenit et in mare prōcēdit. Trōiānōs vidēre nōn potest sed audit eōs rēmigantēs. clāmōrem ingentem tollit. cēterī Cyclōpēs clāmōrem audiunt et currunt dē montibus ad lītus. saxa ingentia in nāvēs coniciunt; sed Trōiānī iam ē lītore rēmigant. Cyclōpēs eōs contingere nōn possunt.
Playlet — Aeneas Escapes from Polyphemus:
Characters: Aenēās, Nauta prīmus, Nauta alter, Graecus (Achaemenides), Polyphēmus.
Polyphemus sniffs the air (phi, phae, phō, phum, sanguinem olfaciō Trōiānōrum virum). Aeneas mocks the blind Cyclopes from the stern of his ship as they row away.
Vocabulary 10:
Verbs: habitāre (live/dwell), ōrāre (pray/beg), quaerere (ask/seek), quiescere (rest), tollere (lift/raise).
Nouns: caelum, -ī, n. (sky), clāmor, clāmōris, m. (shout), homō, hominis, c. (human/man), lītus, lītoris, n. (shore), mare, maris, n. (sea), mōns, montis, m. (mountain), nauta, -ae, m. (sailor), perīculum, -ī, n. (danger), saxum, -ī, n. (rock), silva, -ae, f. (wood), unda, -ae, f. (wave), verbum, -ī, n. (word).
Adjectives / Adverbs / Prepositions: prīmus (first), prīmum (firstly), vix (scarcely), dē (+ abl: down from), sub (+ abl: under).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 10):
Neuter Nouns: Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative forms are identical in Neuter nouns; the plural Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative always end in -a.
2nd Declension Neuter: Sing Nom/Acc: bell-um, Plur Nom/Acc: bell-a.
3rd Declension Neuter Consonant Stems: Sing Nom/Acc: lītus, Plur Nom/Acc: lītor-a.
3rd Declension Neuter i-Stems: Sing Nom/Acc: mare, Abl Sing: marī, Plur Nom/Acc: mar-ia, Gen Plur: mar-ium.
Literary Background — Odysseus and Polyphemus:
Odysseus blinds Polyphemus with a heated olive stake after getting him drunk on wine, escaping his cave tied underneath sheep bellies while using the alias "Nobody" (Nēmo).
Chapter 11: The Meeting of Dido and Aeneas
Primary Latin Text:
dum Trōiānī ā Siciliā ad Italiam nāvigant, venit magna tempestās; Aeolus, rēx ventōrum, omnēs ventōs ēmittit. Trōiānī in magnō perīculō sunt nec cursum tenēre possunt. tandem ventī eōs ad terram ignōtam pellunt. Trōiānī ē nāvibus exeunt et in lītore quiescunt. postrīdiē Aenēās cōnstituit terram explōrāre. comitibus dīcit: 'vōs prope nāvēs manēte; mihi prōpositum est in terram prōcēdere.' ūnō cum amīcō collem ascendit et prōspicit. multōs hominēs videt quī urbem prope lītus aedificant. Aenēās eōs diū spectat. 'ō fortūnātī,' inquit, 'vōs urbem iam aedificātis; nōs semper in undīs errāmus.' tandem collem dēscendit; urbem intrat et accēdit ad magnum templum. in templī mūrīs multae pictūrae sunt; Aenēās pictūrās spectat; attonitus est; nam pictūrae bellum Trōiānum dēscribunt. amīcum vocat et 'ecce, amīce,' inquit, 'in hāc pictūrā Priamum vidēre potēs et Achillem. hīc est Agamemnōn. ecce, hīc Achillēs Hectorem mortuum circum mūrōs urbis trahit. nōlī timēre. Trōiānōrum labōrēs omnibus nōtī sunt.' dum templum spectat, ecce, rēgīna, nōmine Dīdō, accēdit multīs cum prīncipibus. Aenēās currit ad eam et 'ō rēgīna,' inquit, 'succurre nōbīs. Trōiānī sumus quī ad Italiam nāvigāmus. tempestās nōs ad tuam terram pepulit.' Dīdō Aenēam spectat admīrātiōne plēna; deinde 'fāma Trōiānōrum,' inquit, 'omnibus nōta est. nōlīte timēre. ego vōbīs laeta succurrō.' sīc eōs benignē accipit et ad rēgiam dūcit. deinde omnēs prīncipēs Carthāginis et omnēs Trōiānōs ad epulās vocat. ubi cēna confecta est, Dīdō 'age,' inquit, 'Aenēā, nārrā nōbīs Trōiae cāsum et omnēs labōrēs Trōiānōrum.' omnēs tacitī sedent et Aenēam spectant. ille respondet: 'īnfandum, rēgīna, iubēs renovāre dolōrem. sed sī cupis cognōscere, audī Trōiae suprēmōs labōrēs.'
Vocabulary 11:
Verbs: aedificāre (build), cognōscere (learn/get to know), errāre (wander/err), ferre (carry/bear), imperāre (+ dat: order), invenīre (find), occurrere (+ dat: meet), ostendere (show), stāre (stand), succurrere (+ dat: help).
Nouns: arma, -ōrum, n. pl. (arms/weapons), bellum, -ī, n. (war), castra, -ōrum, n. pl. (camp), collis, collis, m. (hill), cōnsilium, -ī, n. (plan), fāma, -ae, f. (fame/reputation), hostis, hostis, c. (enemy), nōmen, nōminis, n. (name), patria, -ae, f. (fatherland), rēgīna, -ae, f. (queen), somnus, -ī, m. (sleep), templum, -ī, n. (temple), ventus, -ī, m. (wind), vīnum, -ī, n. (wine).
Adjectives / Adverb / Conjunction: ignōtus (unknown), nōtus (known), semper (always), dum (while).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 11):
Dative Case ("to" / "for"):
Endings: 1st Declension Sing: -ae, Plur: -īs; 2nd Declension Sing: -\bar{o}, Plur: -īs; 3rd Declension Sing: -\bar{i}, Plur: -ibus.
Personal Pronouns Dative: mihi (to me), tibi (to you), nōbīs (to us), vōbīs (to you pl.), eī (to him/her/it), eīs (to them).
Special Dative Verbs: Verbs taking dative objects include imperō (order), persuādeō (persuade), placeō (please), resistō (resist), accēdō (approach), occurrō (meet), succurrō (help).
Historical & Legendary Background — Dido, Queen of Carthage:
Dido (Elissa) fled Tyre in Phoenicia after her brother Pygmalion murdered her husband Sychaeus for his wealth. She established Carthage on the North African coast by buying as much land as could be encompassed by an ox's hide (Byrsa).
Chapter 12: Infelix Dido
Primary Latin Text:
ubi Aenēās fīnem dīcendī facit, omnēs tacitī sedent. tandem Dīdō hospitēs dīmittit. mox omnēs dormiunt. sed Dīdō dormīre nōn potest. per tōtam noctem Aenēam et labōrēs Trōiānōrum in animō volvit. Aenēās et Trōiānī post tantōs labōrēs valdē fessī sunt. eīs placet in Libyā manēre et quiescere. intereā Dīdō Aenēam amāre incipit; Aenēās semper spectat; Aenēam etiam absentem audit et videt. neque Aenēās amōrem Dīdōnis spernit. per tōtam hiemem in Libyā manet et Dīdōnem iuvat, dum novam urbem aedificat. sed rēx deōrum, Iuppiter, Aenēam dē caelō spectat in Libyā cessantem. īrātus est quod Aenēās, fātī immemor, ibi manet. Mercurium, nūntium deōrum, vocat et 'ī nunc, Mercurī,' inquit, 'ad Libyam volā. Aenēam iubē statim ad Italiam nāvigāre.' Mercurius patris imperia perficere parat; tālāria induit et dē caelō in Libyam volat. Aenēās invenit arcem aedificantem. eī accēdit et 'audī mē, Aenēā,' inquit; 'ego sum Mercurius, deōrum nūntius; Iuppiter, rēx hominum et pater deōrum, mē mittit ad tē; mē iubet haec tibi dīcere: nōlī diūtius in Libyā manēre, fātī immemor. statim ad Italiam nāvigā et novam Trōiam ibi conde.' Aenēās, ubi Mercurium ante oculōs videt et monitum Iovis audit, territus est. nōn potest imperia deōrum neglegere. ad comitēs redit et iubet eōs nāvēs parāre. sed Dīdō omnia cognōvit; Aenēam arcessit et 'perfide,' inquit, 'tūne parās tacitus dīscēdere ā meā terrā? sīc amōrem meum spernis? sīc mē relinquis moritūram?' ille penitus commōtus 'neque amōrem tuum' inquit 'spernō nec tacitus abīre parō. sed Iuppiter ipse mē iubet Italiam petere et novam Trōiam ibi condere. Italiam nōn sponte petō.' tum vērō exardēscit Dīdōnis īra: 'ego tē nōn retineō. ī nunc. Italiam pete. sed tē moneō: poena dīra tē manet; sērius ōcius aut ego aut posterī ultiōnem tibi exigent.' sīc dīcit et ad terram dēcidit exanimāta.
Playlet — Aeneas Deserts Dido (Aenēās Dīdōnem dēserit):
Characters: Aenēās, Fabrī (workmen), Mercurius, Trōiānī, Dīdō.
Mercury confronts Aeneas building Carthage's citadel. Aeneas informs his reluctant men to prepare ships. Dido curses Aeneas (sērius ōcius aut ego aut posterī poenās tibi exigent) and falls unconscious.
Vocabulary 12:
Verbs: amāre (love), dēspērāre (despair), perficere (carry out/complete), petere (seek/pursue), placēre (+ dat: please).
Nouns: amor, amōris, m. (love), animus, -ī, m. (mind), dea, -ae, f. (goddess), deus, -ī, m. (god), hiems, hiemis, f. (winter), imperium, -ī, n. (order), nūntius, -ī, m. (messenger/message), oculus, -ī, m. (eye).
Adjectives: commōtus (moved), fēlīx, fēlīcis (lucky/happy), infēlīx, infēlīcis (unlucky), tantus (so great), trīstis, trīste (sad).
Adverbs / Prepositions / Conjunctions: etiam (even/also), ibi (there), intereā (meanwhile), nunc (now), ante (+ acc: before), post (+ acc: after), aut…aut (either…or).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 12):
Existential est / sunt: Positioned at sentence beginnings to mean "there is" / "there are" (e.g., sunt multa templa in urbe).
Preposition Syntax Summary: Accusative indicates direction/motion (ad, ante, circum, in, inter, per, post, prope, trāns); Ablative indicates position/separation (ā/ab, cum, dē, ē/ex, in, sine, sub).
Historical & Legendary Background — From Aeneas to Romulus:
Aeneas married Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus, founding Lavinium. Ascanius founded Alba Longa.
Generations later, Amulius usurped King Numitor, forcing Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin. Mars fathered twin boys Romulus and Remus with her. Exposed in the flooded Tiber, they were suckled by a she-wolf (lupa) and rescued by the shepherd Faustulus.
After restoring Numitor, they founded Rome on April 21, 753 BC. Romulus observed 12 vultures on the Palatine Hill; Remus saw 6 on the Aventine Hill. Romulus slew Remus after Remus leaped over his rising boundary wall.
Chapter 13: Fabula Tristis
Primary Latin Text:
multīs abhinc annīs in terrā longinquā rēx et rēgīna habitant quī trēs fīliās habent; omnēs fīliae pulchrae sunt, sed nātū minima, Psychē nōmine, multō pulcherrima est. omnēs virī omnēsque fēminae eam laudant et quasi deam colunt. tandem dea Venus īrāta est; invidet puellae, quod pulchra est, invidet, quod omnēs eam quasi deam colunt. Cupīdinem arcessit et 'tū, cāre fīlī,' inquit, 'amōrem in pectoribus hūmānīs excitāre potēs. ī nunc, puellam pulchram quaere Psychēn nōmine. sagittam ēmitte et cōge eam amāre hominem aliquem miserum et īnfōrmem.' Cupīdō mātris imperia perficere parat. arcum capit et sagittās, et ad terrās volat. mox Psychēn invenit, quae sōla sub arbore sedet. trīstis est; nam omnēs eam laudant, omnēs colunt, sed nēmō amat, nēmō in mātrimōnium dūcit. Cupīdō diū fōrmam illam mīrandam spectat. iam dormit Psychē. accēdit Cupīdō et eam propius spectat. statim amōre flagrat. dum dormit puella, tollit eam et per aurās vehit ad domum dīvīnam; ibi eam lēniter in lectō dēpōnit. mox ēvigilat Psychē et surgit. omnia spectat. vōcēs audit sed nēminem videt. vōcēs dīcunt: 'omnia quae vidēs, domina, marītus tuus tibi dat. nōs tibi famulae sumus. intrā et cēnā.' Psychē valdē attonita est sed cēnāculum intrat et cēnam videt parātam. laeta cēnat. deinde dormit. dum dormit, sonum audit; ēvigilat; territa est. marītus ignōtus adest; lectum ascendit et Psychēn amplexū tenet; sed ante sōlis ortum dīscēdit. Psychē, ubi ēvigilat, sōla est; marītī nūllum vestīgium videt. vōcēs sōlae adsunt, quae eam cūrant.
Psychē marītum perdit: proximā nocte dum dormit Psychē, iterum adest marītus ille et 'Psychē,' inquit, 'uxor cāra, ego tē valdē amō et tibi omnia dō quae cupis. sed nōn licet tibi vultum meum vidēre. sī mē in lūce vīderis, numquam ad tē redībō.' Psychē, ubi marītī verba audit, valdē trīstis est, sed ōscula marītī cōnsōlātiōnem eī ferunt. mox dormit, et ubi ēvigilat, sōla est. Psychē diū sīc vīvit: interdiū vōcēs eam cūrant, nocte gaudet complexibus marītī. sed valdē cupit vultum marītī spectāre. itaque nocte quadam lucernam parat. marītus redit et lectum ascendit; Psychēn complexibus ardentibus tenet, deinde dormit. Psychē ē lectō exsilit lucernamque accendit; tum prīmum marītī vultum videt. statim amōre flagrat; Cupīdinem dormientem iterum atque iterum bāsiat. sed lucerna illa stillam oleī ardentis ēmittit, quae in Cupīdinem cadit. statim exsilit Cupīdō, neque umquam postēā ad Psychēn redit.
Vocabulary 13:
Verbs: colere (till/worship), dēpōnere (put down), ēvigilāre (wake up), excitāre (rouse/awaken), invidēre (+ dat: envy), tenēre (hold), vīvere (live).
Nouns: arbor, arboris, f. (tree), aura, -ae, f. (breeze/air), domina, -ae, f. (mistress), fōrma, -ae, f. (shape/beauty), lūx, lūcis, f. (light), marītus, -ī, m. (husband), sonus, -ī, m. (sound), vōx, vōcis, f. (voice).
Adjectives / Pronouns / Adverbs / Conjunction: dīvīnus (divine), nūllus (no/none), pulcher (beautiful), nēmō, nēminis (no one), quī, quae, quod (who/which), numquam (never), umquam (ever), sī (if).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 13):
Subordinate Clauses: Clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions (ubi = when, quod = because, dum = while, sī = if).
Relative Pronoun Paradigm (quī, quae, quod):
Singular: Nom: quī, quae, quod; Gen: cuius; Dat: cuī; Acc: quem, quam, quod; Abl: quō, quā, quō.
Plural: Nom: quī, quae, quae; Gen: quōrum, quārum, quōrum; Dat/Abl: quibus; Acc: quōs, quās, quae.
Relative Agreement: Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender and number, but derive their case from their grammatical function in the subordinate clause.
Historical & Cultural Background — The Olympian Gods:
Anthropomorphic Greek deities syncretized with native Roman spirits: Jupiter/Zeus (sky/thunderbolt), Juno/Hera (marriage/women), Neptune/Poseidon (sea/trident), Ceres/Demeter (agriculture), Minerva/Athena (wisdom/handicrafts), Apollo (sun/music/prophecy), Diana/Artemis (hunting/moon), Venus/Aphrodite (love/beauty), Vulcan/Hephaestus (fire/crafts), Mars/Ares (war/father of Romulus), Bacchus/Dionysus (wine), Mercury/Hermes (messenger/commerce).
State religion overseen by the Pontifex Maximus and colleges of priests.
Chapter 14: Quintus Milites Spectat
Primary Latin Text:
cotīdiē Flaccus prīmā lūce tōtam familiam convocat et ad larārium dūcit. vīnum in terram fundit et Laribus supplicat: 'ō Larēs, ōrō vōs, familiam hodiē cūrāte et pecora servāte.' deinde ille ad agrum prōcēdit, Quīntus et Horātia ad lūdum. sed hodiē Flaccus 'diēs fēstus est,' inquit; 'vōs parāte; Parīlia celebrāmus.' omnēs sē lavant. deinde Flaccus familiam iubet sēcum venīre ad locum sacrum in quō Parīlia celebrāre dēbent. multī hominēs ad agrōs laetī festīnant, virī, fēminae, puerī. Horātia Quīntusque amīcōs salūtant. sunt multī flōrēs prope viam; puerī flōrēs carpunt corōnāsque faciunt; puellīs eās dant. tandem ad locum sacrum adveniunt. omnēs tacitī manent, dum sacerdōs vīnum in terram fundit et Palī supplicat: 'alma Palēs,' inquit, 'tibi supplicāmus; servā pecora, agnās cūrā, morbōs arcē.' omnēs carmen sacrum canunt. deinde epulās parant et laetī cēnant. post epulās ad lūdōs sē parant. iuvenēs magnōs acervōs stipulae faciunt. acervōs accendunt. flammae ad caelum ascendunt. iuvenēs fortiter flammās trānsiliunt, dum cēterī clāmant et plaudunt.
Quintus militēs spectat: dum Quīntus lūdōs spectat, accurrit Gāius et 'venī mēcum, Quinte,' inquit; 'mīlitēs in colōniam contendunt.' Quīntus, parentum immemor, cum Gāiō ad forum currit. ubi eō adveniunt, mīlitēs per forum iam contendunt. prīmus venit imperātor; palūdāmentum purpureum gerit et in equō candidō vectus exercitum dūcit; post eum equitant lēgātī. post eōs contendunt centuriōnēs mīlitēsque gregāriī. iam multī colōnōrum ab agrīs reveniunt mīlitēsque spectant. senex quīdam, quī prope Quīntum stat, 'ecce', inquit, 'Crassus ad bellum prōcēdit, homō pūtidus. populum Rōmānum nōn cūrat; nihil cupit nisi suam glōriam augēre. sine dubiō mīlitēs ad mortem dūcit.' in terram inspuit et domum abit. mox novissimī mīlitum praetereunt colōnīque domum redeunt. sed Quīntus plūra vidēre cupit. Gāiō dīcit: 'venī.' et post mīlitēs festīnat.
Crassus exercitum ē portīs dūcit in agrōs. tandem sē vertit et manum tollit. exercitus cōnsistit. Crassus imperia lēgātīs dat; illī ad legiōnēs equitant et imperia centuriōnibus trādunt. centuriōnēs mīlitēs iubent castra pōnere. illī ad opera festīnant. ante sōlis occāsum omnia parāta sunt. Quīntus Gāiusque mīlitēs ē collē vicīnō spectant, parentum immemorēs. sed Gāius 'venī mēcum, Quinte,' inquit, 'nox adest. domum recurrere dēbēmus. sine dubiō parentēs nostrī ānxii sunt et īrātī.' nox obscūra est; viam vix vidēre possunt, sed tandem ad portās colōniae adveniunt. ubi Quīntus domum advenit, Scintilla et Horātia in casā sedent trīstēs et ānxiae. Scintilla surgit et 'ō Quinte,' inquit, 'ubi fuistī? pater tē quaerit in agrīs. valdē īrātus est.' Quīntus mātrī omnia nārrat et patrem anxius exspectat. tandem revenit Flaccus. Scintilla currit ad eum et 'Flacce,' inquit, 'Quīntus adest. incolumis est.' Flaccus ad Quīntum sē vertit. 'ubi fuistī, Quinte?' inquit; 'malus puer es. cūr parentēs sīc vexās? ī nunc cubitum.'
Vocabulary 14:
Verbs: canere (sing), contendere (march/hasten/walk), exercēre (train/exercise), gerere (carry/wear), lavāre (wash).
Nouns: carmen, carminis, n. (song), centuriō, centuriōnis, m. (centurion), famīlia, -ae, f. (family/household), flōs, flōris, m. (flower), glōria, -ae, f. (glory), imperātor, imperātōris, m. (general), iuvenis, iuvenis, m. (young man), legiō, legiōnis, f. (legion), locus, -ī, m. (place), mīles, mīlitis, m. (soldier), parēns, parentis, c. (parent), populus, -ī, m. (people), senex, senis, m. (old man).
Pronouns / Adverbs: is, ea, id (he/she/it/that), quīdam, quaedam, quoddam (a certain), eō (thither/there), hodiē (today), posteā (afterwards).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 14):
Demonstrative Pronoun Paradigm (is, ea, id):
Singular: Nom: is, ea, id; Gen: eius; Dat: eī; Acc: eum, eam, id; Abl: eō, eā, eō.
Plural: Nom: eī, eae, ea; Gen: eōrum, eārum, eōrum; Dat/Abl: eīs; Acc: eōs, eās, ea.
Reflexive Pronoun (sē): Refers back to sentence subject. Gen: suī, Dat: sibī, Acc/Abl: sē. Same forms for singular and plural; lacks a nominative case.
Possessive Adjectives: Reflexive possessive suus, -a, -um ("his own / her own / their own") vs. Non-reflexive possessives eius ("his/her/its") and eōrum/eārum ("their").
Historical & Cultural Background — Roman Domestic Religion:
Domestic worship led by the paterfamiliās at the household shrine (larārium).
Veneration of the Larēs (spirits of ancestors/farmland), Penātēs (spirits of the pantry), Iānus (god of doorways), and Vesta (goddess of the hearth fire).
Festival of the Parīlia (April 21): Purification ritual honoring Pales to preserve sheep and livestock; included turf sacrifices, feasting, and leaping across burning straw heaps.
Divination and Augury: Augurēs interpreted bird flight and feeding habits of sacred chickens (e.g., Publius Claudius Pulcher throwing non-eating chickens into the sea in 249 BC); haruspices inspected animal entrails.
Chapter 15: Cincinnatus
Primary Latin Text:
ubi Quīntus et Horātia ā lūdō domum redeunt Flaccusque ab agrō, omnēs quiescunt. mox Quīntus, 'pater,' inquit, 'sī vīs, nārrā nōbīs fābulam.' ille respondet: 'quam fābulam audīre cupis, Quinte?' Quīntus, 'fābulam mihi nārrā' inquit 'dē Cincinnātō, pater.' ille: 'illam fābulam iam saepe audīvistī, Quinte, sed sī tū cupis eam iterum audīre, ego volō eam nārrāre.' Cincinnātus est vir fortis et mīlitiae perītus, sed pauper; parvum agrum ipse colit trāns Tiberim. illō tempore Rōma urbs parva est; bella multīs cum hostibus semper gerit. quondam hostēs exercitum in fīnēs Rōmānōs dūcunt et castra pōnunt haud procul ā moenibus urbis. cōnsul Rōmānus, vir imperītus et timidus, legiōnēs ēdūcit hostēsque repellere temptat. castra pōnit in collē prope hostēs sed timet eōs oppugnāre; illī castra Rōmāna celeriter circumveniunt et exercitum obsident. ubi cīvēs haec cognōscunt, omnēs valdē timent. ad cūriam conveniunt et patrēs iubent urbem servāre; clāmant: 'urbs in magnō perīculō est. urbem servāte, ō patrēs; hostēs repellite.' cōnsul patribus dīcit: 'quid facere dēbēmus, ō patrēs? quomodo urbem servāre possumus?' patrēs respondent: 'Cincinnātus sōlus nōs servāre potest. nam mīlitiae perītus est et vir fortis, quī patriam amat et hostēs semper vincit. eum dictātōrem creāre dēbēmus. Cincinnātum ad urbem statim arcessite.' itaque patrēs nūntiōs ad Cincinnātum mittunt. illī trāns Tiberim festīnant et mox Cincinnātum inveniunt quī in agrō suō labōrat. nūntiī ad eum accēdunt et 'Cincinnāte,' inquiunt, 'patrēs tē iubent ad senātum statim venīre.' ille attonitus est sed patrum imperia neglegere nōn potest. domum festīnat; sē lavat uxōremque iubet togam prōferre. deinde togātus cum nūntiīs ad senātum festīnat. ubi ad urbem accēdit, patrēs obviam eī veniunt et in senātum dūcunt. ibi 'tū sōlus' inquiunt 'urbem servāre potēs. itaque tē dictātōrem creāmus. exercitum in hostēs dūc urbemque nostram ē magnō perīculō servā.'
Cincinnātus Rōmam servat: postrīdiē Cincinnātus exercitum in hostēs dūcit. mediā nocte ad castra hostium accēdit. deinde mīlitēs iubet hostēs circumvenīre magnōsque clāmōrēs tollere. et hostēs et cōnsulis exercitus clāmōrēs audiunt. cōnsul 'audīte, mīlitēs,' inquit, 'illōs clāmōrēs. Rōmānī auxilium ferunt hostēsque iam oppugnant. ērumpite et hostēs ipsī oppugnāte.' sīc dīcit mīlitēsque in proelium dūcit. iam Rōmānī hostēs ex utrāque parte oppugnant. illī territī sunt. dēspērant et mox sē dēdunt. arma dēpōnunt et ad fīnēs suōs abeunt. Cincinnātus mīlitēs Rōmānōs ad urbem redūcit. patrēs eum in urbem dūcunt triumphantem. omnēs cīvēs gaudent et epulās faciunt. sīc Cincinnātus urbem servat. sed mox domum redit, togam dēpōnit, in agrō rursus labōrat.
Vocabulary 15:
Verbs: bellum gerere (wage war), circumvenīre (surround), dēdere (surrender/give up), nōlle (be unwilling/refuse), repellere (drive back), temptāre (try), velle (wish/be willing).
Nouns: auxilium, -ī, n. (help), cīvis, cīvis, c. (citizen), cōnsul, cōnsulis, m. (consul), dictātor, dictātōris, m. (dictator), moenia, moenium, n. pl. (walls), proelium, -ī, n. (battle), senātus, -ūs, m. (senate), toga, -ae, f. (toga).
Adjectives / Pronouns / Adverbs / Prepositions / Conjunction: pauper (poor), hic, haec, hoc (this), ipse, ipsa, ipsum (self), haud (not), postrīdiē (next day), procul (far), quomodo? (how?), trāns (+ acc: across), dē (+ abl: about), et…et (both…and).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 15):
Irregular Verbs volō and nōlō:
volō, velle (wish/will): volō, vīs, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt.
nōlō, nōlle (refuse/be unwilling): nōlō, nōn vīs, nōn vult, nōlumus, nōn vultis, nōlunt.
Irregular Imperatives: dīc! (from dīcere), dūc! (from dūcere), fer! (from ferre), fac! (from facere).
Demonstrative Paradigms:
hic, haec, hoc (this/these): Sing: Nom: hic, haec, hoc; Gen: huius; Dat: huic; Acc: hunc, hanc, hoc; Abl: hōc, hāc, hōc. Plur: Nom: hī, hae, haec; Gen: hōrum, hārum, hōrum; Dat/Abl: hīs; Acc: hōs, hās, haec.
ipse, ipsa, ipsum (self/very): Sing Nom: ipse, ipsa, ipsum; Gen: ipsīus; Dat: ipsī.
Historical Background — From Monarchy to Republic:
Rome was ruled by 7 kings (753–510 BC). The last king, Tarquin the Proud (Tarquinius Superbus), was expelled following the rape of Lucretia by his son Sextus Tarquinius.
Lucius Junius Brutus led the overthrow in 510 BC, establishing the Roman Republic headed by two annual consuls. Brutus executed his own sons when they conspired to restore the Tarquins.
Emergency Dictatorship: Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus was appointed dictator in 458 BC while plowing his 4-acre farm (Prāta Quīnctia); he defeated the Aequi, rescued the trapped consul, celebrated a triumph, and resigned his dictatorship within 16 days to return to his farm.
Social War (91–82 BC): Italian allies (sociī) fought Rome to gain full Roman citizenship, which was granted across the Italian peninsula.
Chapter 16: Cloeliae Virtus
Primary Latin Text:
postrīdiē Horātia, dum in hortō cum mātre sedet, haec dīcit: 'māter cāra, Cincinnātus vir fortis erat et bonus. nōnne fēminae quoque tantam virtūtem praebuērunt?' Scintilla: 'certē, cāra fīlia, multae fēminae erant quae summam virtūtem praebuērunt, sīcut Cloelia.' Horātia: 'nārrā mihi dē Cloeliā, sī vīs.' Scintilla: 'audī, Horātia. ego tibi nārrābō dē virtūte Cloeliae.' multis abhinc annīs Etruscī Rōmānōs in proeliō vincunt sed urbem capere nōn possunt. itaque tōtam urbem circumveniunt; praesidium in collē Iāniculō trāns Tiberim pōnunt; flūmen multīs nāvibus custōdiunt. Rōmānī frūmentum in urbem importāre nōn possunt; cīvēs iēiūnī sunt, sed fortiter resistunt neque ullō pactō sē dēdere volunt. tandem rēx Etruscōrum, Porsinna nōmine, condiciōnēs pācis ipse prōpōnit: ab obsidiōne dēsistere vult sed obsidēs ā Rōmānīs poscit. hās condiciōnēs Rōmānī accipiunt obsidēsque Porsinnae trādunt. Etruscī exercitum ā Iāniculō dēdūcunt et castra haud procul rīpā Tiberis pōnunt. inter obsidēs sunt plēraeque fēminae. ūna ex hīs, virgō nōmine Cloelia, ē manibus hostium ēvādere cōnstituit. custōdēs fallit, ē castrīs effugit, manum fēminārum ad Tiberim dūcit. flūmen trānat omnēsque fēminās in urbem incolumēs dūcit. prīmum Porsinna valdē īrātus est Rōmānōsque iubet omnēs obsidēs sibi reddere. deinde ab īrā dēsistit et, in admīrātiōnem Cloeliae virtūtis versus, haec Rōmānīs dīcit: 'vōs foedus rumpitis, sed sī Cloeliam mihi reddideritis, nōn modo eam incolumem servābō sed etiam cēterās fēminās līberābō.' Rōmānī haec accipiunt Cloeliamque trādunt, quae ad castra hostium libēns redit. Porsinna cēterās fēminās līberat. sīc pāx redintegrāta est. Rōmānī Cloeliae virtūtem honōre insignī commemorant, nam statuam eius in summā Sacrā viā pōnunt in equō īnsidentis. 'Cloeliae fābula, Horātia, haec nōs docet: nōn sōlum virī sed fēminae quoque summam virtūtem praebēre possunt summōque honōre dignae sunt.'
Vocabulary 16:
Verbs: custōdīre (guard), ēvādere (escape), līberāre (free), poscere (demand), rumpere (break).
Nouns: custōs, custōdis, m. (guard), exemplum, -ī, n. (example), flūmen, flūminis, n. (river), foedus, foederis, n. (treaty), frūmentum, -ī, n. (grain), obses, obsidis, c. (hostage), pāx, pācis, f. (peace), praesidium, -ī, n. (garrison), statua, -ae, f. (statue), virgō, virginis, f. (maiden/virgin), virtūs, virtūtis, f. (courage/virtue).
Adjectives / Adverbs: dignus (+ abl: worthy of), līber (free), summus (highest/greatest), quoque (also), nōn sōlum…sed etiam (not only…but also).
Grammar Concepts (Chapter 16):
Abstract Noun Formations: Nouns ending in -tās, -tātis, f. are derived from adjectives (e.g., dignus -> dignitās; līber -> lībertās; celer -> celeritās).
Historical Background — Hannibal and the Punic Wars:
First Punic War (264–241 BC): Naval conflicts over Sicily. Marcus Atilius Regulus advised the Senate against exchanging prisoners, returned to Carthage in honor of his word, and was tortured to death.
Second Punic War (218–202 BC): Hannibal Barca crossed the Pyrenees, Rhone River, and Alps (setting out with men and arriving with ). Inflicted defeats on Rome at Trebia (218 BC), Lake Trasimene (217 BC), and Cannae (216 BC, where Romans died). Maharbal remarked: "You know how to win, Hannibal, but you do not know how to use your victory." Hasdrubal was defeated and killed at the Metaurus River (207 BC). Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama (202 BC).
Third Punic War (149–146 BC): Urged by Marcus Porcius Cato ("Dēlenda est Carthāgō"), Carthage was destroyed in 146 BC. In 1985, a formal peace treaty was signed by the mayors of Rome and Carthage.
Appendix: Ciceronis Filius
Primary Latin Narrative Summary:
Recounts the early life of Marcus Tullius Cicero's son, Marcus. Born in Arpinum while Cicero was running for consul (63 BC), Marcus was brought up at his family's Sabine villa with his sister Tullia, mother Terentia, and cousin Quintus (son of Cicero's brother Quintus). Educated in Greek and Latin by a private tutor (paedagōgus).
Accompanied Cicero during his exile in 58 BC and his governorship of Cilicia in 51 BC. Later sent to the school of Orbilius in Rome, where he befriended Quintus Horatius Flaccus.
Reference Grammar Tables
First Declension Nouns (Feminine, stems in -\bar{a})
Singular: Nom: puell-a, Gen: puell-ae, Dat: puell-ae, Acc: puell-am, Abl: puell-\bar{a}, Voc: puell-a
Plural: Nom: puell-ae, Gen: puell-\bar{a}rum, Dat: puell-īs, Acc: puell-\bar{a}s, Abl: puell-īs, Voc: puell-ae
Second Declension Nouns (Masculine & Neuter, stems in -\bar{o})
Masculine (colōnus):
Singular: Nom: colōn-us, Gen: colōn-ī, Dat: colōn-ō, Acc: colōn-um, Abl: colōn-ō, Voc: colōn-e
Plural: Nom: colōn-ī, Gen: colōn-\bar{o}rum, Dat: colōn-īs, Acc: colōn-\bar{o}s, Abl: colōn-īs, Voc: colōn-ī
Masculine (puer, ager):
Singular: Nom: puer / ager, Gen: puer-ī / agr-ī, Dat: puer-ō / agr-ō, Acc: puer-um / agr-um, Abl: puer-ō / agr-ō
Plural: Nom: puer-ī / agr-ī, Gen: puer-\bar{o}rum / agr-\bar{o}rum, Dat: puer-īs / agr-īs, Acc: puer-\bar{o}s / agr-\bar{o}s, Abl: puer-īs / agr-īs
Neuter (bellum):
Singular: Nom/Acc/Voc: bell-um, Gen: bell-ī, Dat/Abl: bell-ō
Plural: Nom/Acc/Voc: bell-a, Gen: bell-\bar{o}rum, Dat/Abl: bell-īs
Third Declension Nouns (Consonant and i-Stems)
Consonant Stem Masculine/Feminine (rēx, rēgis):
Singular: Nom/Voc: rēx, Gen: rēg-is, Dat: rēg-ī, Acc: rēg-em, Abl: rēg-e
Plural: Nom/Acc/Voc: rēg-ēs, Gen: rēg-um, Dat/Abl: rēg-ibus
Consonant Stem Neuter (lītus, lītoris):
Singular: Nom/Acc/Voc: lītus, Gen: lītor-is, Dat: lītor-ī, Abl: lītor-e
Plural: Nom/Acc/Voc: lītor-a, Gen: lītor-um, Dat/Abl: lītor-ibus
i-Stem Masculine/Feminine (nāvis, nāvis):
Singular: Nom/Voc: nāv-is, Gen: nāv-is, Dat: nāv-ī, Acc: nāv-em, Abl: nāv-e
Plural: Nom/Acc/Voc: nāv-ēs, Gen: nāv-ium, Dat/Abl: nāv-ibus
i-Stem Neuter (mare, maris):
Singular: Nom/Acc/Voc: mare, Gen: mar-is, Dat/Abl: mar-ī
Plural: Nom/Acc/Voc: mar-ia, Gen: mar-ium, Dat/Abl: mar-ibus
Adjective Declensions
1st/2nd Declension (bonus, bona, bonum):
Masc: bonus, bonī, bonō, bonum, bonō, bone | bonī, bonōrum, bonīs, bonōs, bonīs
Fem: bona, bonae, bonae, bonam, bonā | bonae, bonārum, bonīs, bonās, bonīs
Neut: bonum, bonī, bonō, bonum, bonō | bona, bonōrum, bonīs, bona, bonīs
3rd Declension i-Stems (omnis, omne):
M/F Sing: Nom/Voc: omnis, Acc: omnem, Gen: omnis, Dat/Abl: omnī
Neut Sing: Nom/Acc/Voc: omne, Gen: omnis, Dat/Abl: omnī
M/F Plur: Nom/Acc/Voc: omnēs, Gen: omnium, Dat/Abl: omnibus
Neut Plur: Nom/Acc/Voc: omnia, Gen: omnium, Dat/Abl: omnibus
Numerals Paradigm (ūnus, duo, trēs)
ūnus, ūna, ūnum: Gen: ūnīus, Dat: ūnī, Acc: ūnum, ūnam, ūnum, Abl: ūnō, ūnā, ūnō
duo, duae, duo: Nom: duo, duae, duo; Gen: duōrum, duārum, duōrum; Dat/Abl: duōbus, duābus, duōbus; Acc: duōs, duās, duo
trēs, tria: Nom/Acc M/F: trēs, N: tria; Gen: trium; Dat/Abl: tribus
Verb Paradigms (Present Active Indicative & Imperatives)
1st Conjugation (parō, parāre): parō, parās, parat, parāmus, parātis, parant. Inf: parāre. Imp: parā! / parāte!
2nd Conjugation (moneō, monēre): moneō, monēs, monet, monēmus, monētis, monent. Inf: monēre. Imp: monē! / monēte!
3rd Conjugation (regō, regere): regō, regis, regit, regimus, regitis, regunt. Inf: regere. Imp: rege! / regite!
3rd Conjugation -iō (capiō, capere): capiō, capis, capit, capimus, capitis, capiunt. Inf: capere. Imp: cape! / capite!
4th Conjugation (audiō, audīre): audiō, audīs, audit, audīmus, audītis, audiunt. Inf: audīre. Imp: audī! / audīte!
Irregular Verb sum, esse: sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt. Inf: esse. Imp: es! / este!
Irregular Verb possum, posse: possum, potes, potest, possumus, potestis, possunt. Inf: posse.
Irregular Verb eō, īre: eō, īs, it, īmus, ītis, eunt. Inf: īre. Imp: ī! / īte!
Irregular Verb volō, velle: volō, vīs, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt. Inf: velle.
Irregular Verb nōlō, nōlle: nōlō, nōn vīs, nōn vult, nōlumus, nōn vultis, nōlunt. Inf: nōlle. Imp: nōlī! / nōlīte!