Psychology Key Terms and Concepts
Key Definitions and Concepts in Psychology
Theoretical Frameworks
Theory
A broad explanation of many observations and predictions about outcomes. This serves as a fundamental basis for understanding complex phenomena, often summarized as a “big map” of knowledge.
Hypothesis
A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory; often referred to as a “guess you can check.” It forms the basis for research and experimentation.
Replication
The process of repeating a study to confirm its results. This practice is essential for validating findings in scientific research.
Experimental Design
Independent Variable (IV)
The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment. It is what the researcher alters to observe the effect on the dependent variable, summarized as “I change it.”
Dependent Variable (DV)
The outcome or response that is measured in an experiment, which “depends on” the independent variable. It reflects the effects of changes made to the IV.
Control Group
The group in an experimental study that does not receive the experimental treatment or intervention. This group serves as a baseline for comparison against the experimental group.
Experimental Group
The group in an experimental study that receives the treatment or intervention, allowing researchers to observe the effects of the independent variable.
Single-blind
An experimental design in which the participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo, reducing bias in responses.
Double-blind
A robust experimental design where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment, further minimizing bias and expectations affecting outcomes.
Research Methodologies
Correlation
A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables are related. Correlation does not imply causation.
Causation
A relationship where one variable directly influences or causes a change in another. Establishing causation typically requires more rigorous experimentation.
Sampling Bias
Occurs when the sample selected for a study does not accurately represent the broader population, leading to skewed results and conclusions.
Naturalistic Observation
A research method where behavior is observed in its natural context without interference. This approach provides insights into behavior in real-world settings.
Case Study
An in-depth examination of a single individual or a small group, providing rich qualitative data and insights but limiting generalizability to broader populations.
Survey / Interview
Methods for gathering data from participants about their behaviors, beliefs, or feelings through questionnaires or direct questioning.
Cognitive Biases and Heuristics
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to perceive events as having been predictable after they have already occurred, often phrased as “I knew it all along.”
Perceiving Patterns in Randomness
The brain’s tendency to seek out order and patterns in random stimuli, leading to erroneous conclusions about relationships.
Learning Theories
Classical Conditioning
A learning process first identified by Pavlov, where an association is made between a naturally occurring stimulus and a previously neutral stimulus, leading to learned responses.
Operant Conditioning
A learning theory focusing on the use of reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior, influencing the likelihood of behaviors occurring in the future.
Reinforcement
Any consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring, creating a desirable outcome.
Punishment
Any consequence that reduces the likelihood of a behavior occurring, often implemented to discourage unwanted actions.
Positive vs. Negative
In the context of reinforcement/punishment: Positive refers to adding a stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., giving praise), while negative refers to removing a stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking away chores).
Memory and Cognition
Cognitive Dissonance
A psychological state experienced when an individual holds two conflicting beliefs, leading to discomfort and prompting a resolution of the inconsistency.
Memory Types
Short-term Memory (STM): A transient form of memory that retains information briefly.
Long-term Memory (LTM): A more permanent storage of information that can last from minutes to decades.
Memory Processes
Encoding: The process of getting information into memory.
Storage: The method by which information is maintained in the brain.
Retrieval: The act of recalling stored information when needed.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making. While useful, they can also lead to systematic errors in judgment and reasoning.
Biases
Systematic errors in thinking and decision-making processes that can affect judgments and conclusions, including specific forms such as hindsight bias and confirmation bias.
Personality and Social Psychology
Histrionic Personality
Characterized by a continuous pattern of excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior. Individuals with this personality type may be dramatic and excessively concerned with approval.
Narcissistic Personality
Defined by an inflated sense of self-importance, a deep need for admiration, and a lack of empathy toward others.
Conformity
The act of changing one’s behavior to align with the norms or expectations of a group, often subconscious.
Obedience
The tendency to follow orders or directives from authority figures, which can be a major influence on human behavior.
Social Facilitation
The phenomenon where individuals perform better on tasks when they are being watched by others, often due to heightened arousal from observation.
Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone, attributed to a diffusion of responsibility.
Key Neurobiology Concepts
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to overemphasize personality factors while underestimating situational influence when explaining others’ behaviors, leading to biased interpretations of actions.
Neuron
The fundamental nerve cell responsible for transmitting information throughout the body via electrical and chemical signals.
Synapse
The junction or gap between nerve cells where neurotransmission occurs, allowing for communication between neurons.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another, playing crucial roles in influencing various bodily functions.
Central Nervous System (CNS) / Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
CNS: Comprises the brain and spinal cord, coordinating responses and processing sensory information.
PNS: Consists of nerves outside the CNS that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.
Brain Lobes
Frontal Lobe: Associated with higher functions such as reasoning, planning, and problem-solving (thinking).
Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information related to touch (touch).
Temporal Lobe: Involved in memory consolidation and auditory processing (sound/memory).
Occipital Lobe: Primarily responsible for visual processing (vision).