Pre-Solo Stage Check and Flight Operations Review

Student Pilot Certification and Regulatory Requirements (FAR/AIM)

According to FAR 61.87, which pertains to personal documents and endorsements required for earning a certificate, a student pilot must satisfy specific criteria before engaging in solo flight. This includes demonstrating satisfactory aeronautical knowledge and receiving pre-solo training on maneuvers and procedures. An instructor must provide a specific endorsement in the student's logbook that is valid for $90,days$ and applies only to a specific make and model of aircraft. When flying solo, the student must carry a government-issued photo ID, their logbook with the appropriate endorsements, a medical certificate, and a student pilot certificate.

FAR 61.89 outlines student pilot limitations. A student pilot must not act as Pilot in Command (PIC) of an aircraft that is carrying passengers, carrying cargo for compensation or hire, or operating for compensation or hire. Furthermore, they cannot fly in furtherance of a business or on international flights. Specific visibility and cloud clearance requirements apply: the student pilot must have a minimum visibility of $3,SM$ during daylight hours or $5,SM$ at night. They must maintain visual reference to the surface at all times and cannot fly contrary to any limitations placed in their logbook by an instructor.

Under FAR 91.3, the Pilot in Command is the final authority during a solo flight and is directly responsible for the aircraft and the final authority regarding its operation. In the event of an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the PIC may deviate from any rule in Part 91 to the extent required to meet that emergency; however, they must submit a written report to the Administrator upon request.

Pre-flight Actions and General Flight Rules

FAR 91.103 specifies required pre-flight actions, often remembered by the acronym NWKRAFT. This includes reviewing weather reports and forecasts, calculating fuel requirements, identifying alternatives available if the flight cannot be completed, checking for known ATC delays, reviewing NOTAMs (Notices to Air Missions), and determining takeoff and landing distances while calculating weight and balance. FAR 91.13 serves as a "catch-all" rule prohibitng the careless or reckless operation of an aircraft that endangers life or property, whether in the air or on the ground.

Alcohol and drug regulations are governed by FAR 91.17. No person may act or attempt to act as a crewmember within $8,hours$ after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage, while under the influence of alcohol, while using any drug that affects their faculties in any way contrary to safety, or while having an alcohol concentration of $0.04$ or greater in a blood or breath specimen. FAR 91.107 requires the PIC to ensure all persons on board are notified to fasten their seatbelts and shoulder harnesses. These must be fastened during taxi, takeoff, and landing.

Fuel requirements for VFR flight under FAR 91.151 require a reserve of $30,minutes$ during the day and $45,minutes$ at night. A common personal minimum is to maintain a reserve of $1,hour$, which in a Cessna 152 usually equates to approximately $5.7,gallons$. Transponder requirements under FAR 91.215 dictate that all aircraft in Classes A, B, and C, as well as within the $30,NM$ Mode C veil of a Class B airport, must have an operating transponder. This also applies when flying above the lateral boundaries of Class B and C airspace up to $10,000,ft,MSL$.

Right of Way and Safe Altitudes

FAR 91.113 establishes right-of-way rules, emphasizing that vigilance shall be maintained by each person operating an aircraft to see and avoid other aircraft. An aircraft in distress has the right of way over all other air traffic. When converging at the same altitude (except for different categories), the aircraft to the other's right has the right of way. In terms of category priority, balloons, gliders, and aircraft towing or refueling have right of way over all powered aircraft. If two aircraft are approaching head-on, each shall alter course to the right. When overtaking, the aircraft being overtaken has the right of way, and the overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right to pass well clear. On final approach to land, aircraft on final or landing have the right of way over those in flight or on the surface, though this should not be taken advantage of to force another aircraft off the runway.

Minimum safe altitudes are governed by FAR 91.119. Generally, an aircraft must maintain enough altitude to allow for an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface. Over congested areas (cities, towns, or settlements), the minimum altitude is $1000,ft$ above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of $2000,ft$. In other than congested areas, the limit is $500,ft$ above the surface or obstacles. FAR 91.121 requires pilots to maintain cruising altitude by referencing an altimeter set to a station along the route within $100,NM$. If no station is available, the elevation of the departure airport should be used. This adjusts for pressure changes, noting that on a standard day, pressure changes by $1,in,Hg$ per $1000,ft$.

VFR cruising altitudes (FAR 91.159) apply when an aircraft is in level cruising flight at more than $3000,ft,AGL$. For magnetic courses of $0^{\circ}\text{--}179^{\circ}$, use odd thousand foot MSL altitudes plus $500,ft$ (NEODD). For magnetic courses of $180^{\circ}\text{--}359^{\circ}$, use even thousand foot MSL altitudes plus $500,ft$ (SWEVEN). For recovery purposes during maneuvers, altitudes should remain above $1500,ft,AGL$.

Airspace Classifications and Weather Minimums

Class A airspace begins at $18,000,ft,MSL$ and extends up to and including FL600 ($60,000,ft,MSL$). It is IFR only, requires two-way radio communication, a Mode C transponder, ADS-B Out, and a maximum speed of $1,mach$. ATC clearance is mandatory to enter.

Class B airspace surrounds the 37 busiest airports and is depicted by solid blue lines resembling an upside-down wedding cake. It requires ATC clearance to enter. Weather minimums are $3,SM$ visibility and strictly remaining "clear of clouds." The ceiling is typically $10,000,ft,MSL$. Within the $30,NM$ Mode C veil, a transponder and ADS-B Out are required. The speed limit is $200,KTS$ within the airspace and $250,KTS$ below $10,000,ft,MSL$.

Class C airspace is depicted by solid magenta lines and usually consists of a surface area with a $5,NM$ radius (surface to $4000,ft,AGL$) and an outer shelf with a $10,NM$ radius (starting at $1200,ft,AGL$ up to $4000,ft,AGL$). Requirement for entry is establishing two-way radio communication with ATC. Weather minimums are $3,SM$ visibility with cloud clearances of $500,ft$ below, $1000,ft$ above, and $2000,ft$ horizontal ($3\text{--}512$). Speed is limited to $200,KTS$ within a $4,NM$ radius.

Class D airspace is depicted by dashed blue lines reaching from the surface to approximately $2500,ft,AGL$. Establishing two-way communication is required. Weather minimums are $3,SM$ and $3\text{--}512$ cloud clearance. Class E airspace is controlled airspace that is not A, B, C, or D. It starts at either the surface (dashed magenta), $700,ft,AGL$ (shaded magenta), or $1200,ft,AGL$. Below $10,000,ft,MSL$, VFR minimums are $3,SM$ and $3\text{--}512$. Above $10,000,ft,MSL$, they increase to $5,SM$ visibility and cloud clearances of $1000,ft$ below, $1000,ft$ above, and $1,SM$ horizontal.

Class G airspace is uncontrolled. During the day below $10,000,ft,MSL$, minimums are $1,SM$ visibility and clear of clouds (if below $1200,ft,AGL$). At night, it becomes $3,SM$ and $3\text{--}512$. Student pilots are not permitted to use Special VFR at KSAV.

Cessna 152 V-Speeds and Performance

The V-Speeds for the Cessna 152 are critical for safe operation: $V_{S0}$ (Stall speed with flaps) is $35,KTS$; $V_{S1}$ (Stall speed without flaps) is $40,KTS$; $V_R$ (Rotation speed) is $50,KTS$; $V_X$ (Best Angle of Climb) is $54,KTS$, providing the most altitude in the shortest horizontal distance for obstacle clearance; $V_Y$ (Best Rate of Climb) is $67,KTS$, providing the most altitude in the shortest time; $V_{FE}$ (Maximum Flaps Extended speed) is $85,KTS$; $V_A$ (Maneuvering speed) is $93,KTS$; Best Glide speed is $60,KTS$; $V_{NO}$ (Maximum structural cruising speed) is $111,KTS$; and $V_{NE}$ (Never Exceed speed) is $149,KTS$. The maximum flap setting for takeoff in a C152 is $10^{\circ}$.

The total fuel capacity is $26,gallons$, with $24.5,gallons$ being usable. Consumption rates depend on pressure altitude and temperature. The oil capacity ranges from a minimum of $4\frac{1}{2},quarts$ to a maximum of $6,quarts$. The maximum crosswind component is $12,KTS$. To calculate the specific crosswind component, multiply the wind speed by the sine of the angle between the aircraft heading and the wind direction ($\text{Wind Speed} \times \sin(\theta)$).

Aircraft Systems and Instrumentation

The Pitot-Static system measures airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed by using air pressure differentials. The Airspeed Indicator uses both ram air from the pitot tube and static air from the static port. The Altimeter compares static pressure within aneroid wafers to a fixed internal pressure to display altitude. The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) measures the rate of change in static pressure to show climbs or descents. In the event of a pitot tube blockage, use pitot heat; if the static port is blocked, use an alternate static source or break the glass on the VSI.

Gyroscopic instruments include the Artificial Horizon (Attitude Indicator), which shows pitch and bank and is aligned vertically to the center of the Earth; the Heading Indicator, which shows the aircraft's heading relative to the yaw axis; and the Turn Coordinator, which indicates the rate of turn. These rely on the principles of rigidity in space and precession.

The Cessna 152 engine is a 4-cylinder, air-cooled engine with a carburetor that mixes fuel and air. It features dual magnetos, which are self-contained electrical generators that provide power to the spark plugs even in the event of an electrical system failure.

Carburetor Icing and Prevention

Carburetor icing is a significant hazard, occurring most frequently in high humidity (above $35\%$) and temperatures between $20^{\circ}F$ and $90^{\circ}F$. It is caused by the drop in temperature within the carburetor venturi.

There are three types of icing: Impact Ice occurs when moisture freezes upon contact with solid surfaces during sub-freezing temperatures. Throttle Ice occurs when the throttle is partially closed (cruising or idling), as the venturi effect reduces air temperature, condensing water vapor into ice. Fuel Vaporization Ice results from the cooling effect that occurs when fuel mixes with air and vaporizes. Indications of carb icing include a drop in RPM or manifold pressure followed by engine roughness. The fix is to apply Carb Heat, which directs warm air from around the engine into the carburetor to melt the ice. Note that when applying carb heat, the engine may initially run even rougher as the ice melts and passes through the engine.

Maintenance and Inspection Requirements (91.205)

To remain airworthy, several inspections must be kept current. The Annual inspection is required every $12,calendar\,months$. A VOR check is required every $30,days$ for IFR flight. The $100\text{-}hour$ inspection is required for aircraft used for hire or flight instruction. Airworthiness Directives (ADs) must be complied with as specified. The Transponder and the Altimeter/Static system (for IFR) both require checks every $24,calendar\,months$. The Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) must be tested every $12,months$, and its battery must be replaced after half its useful life or if it has been used for more than one cumulative hour.

General maintenance can be performed by an A&P (Airframe and Powerplant) mechanic, but an IA (Inspection Authorization) endorsement is required to sign off on major inspections like the Annual.

VFR Day equipment requirements (ATOMATOFLAMES) include: Airspeed indicator, Tachometer, Oil pressure gauge, Manifold pressure gauge (for altitude engines), Altimeter, Temperature gauge (for liquid-cooled engines), Oil temperature gauge, Fuel gauges, Landing gear position indicator, Anti-collision lights, Magnetic direction indicator, ELT, and Safety belts/harnesses. VFR Night requirements (FLAPS) involve all VFR Day equipment plus: Fuses (spare set), Landing light (if for hire), Anti-collision lights, Position lights, and a Source of electricity.

Emergency Procedures and Checklist Flows

In the event of an Engine Failure on Takeoff (Runway Remaining), pull the throttle to idle, apply brakes, set mixture to idle cut-off, turn ignition off, and turn the master switch (MS) off. If the engine fails immediately after takeoff, maintain an airspeed of $60,KTS$, land straight ahead, set mixture and fuel selector to off, turn off ignition, unlatch cabin doors, and land.

For an Engine Failure in Flight, establish a Best Glide speed of $60,KTS$ and select the best landing spot (airport, road, or clear field). Execute the "Floor to Door" check: ensure fuel selector is on, mixture is rich, throttle is set, ignition is on, and primer is in and locked. If the engine does not restart, squawk $7700$ and broadcast "Mayday" three times on $121.5,MHz$. Provide aircraft N-number, type (Cessna 152), position, and intentions. Before landing, tighten seatbelts, turn off fuel, mixture, and ignition, use $30^{\circ}$ of flaps when landing is assured, turn off MS, and unlatch doors.

For an Engine Fire on Start: if the engine starts, run it at $1700,RPM$ for $3,minutes$ then shut down and inspect. If it does not start, continue cranking while setting mixture to idle cut-off, throttle to full, and fuel selector to off. Use a fire extinguisher and evacuate the aircraft.

For an Engine Fire in Flight: turn the mixture, fuel selector, master switch, and cabin heat/air off. Increase airspeed to $85,KTS$ and enter a $45^{\circ}$ bank to attempt to blow out the fire, then proceed to the forced landing procedure. For an electrical fire, turn the master switch, all avionics, and switches (except ignition) off, close all vents, and use the extinguisher. Afterwards, open vents, then turn items back on one at a time to isolate the problem.

Flight Maneuvers and Operations

Slow Flight requires maintaining an altitude within $\pm 150,ft$, heading within $\pm 10^{\circ}$, airspeed within $+10/-0,KTS$, and bank within $\pm 10^{\circ}$. To enter, reduce power to $1500,RPM$, apply carb heat, and add flaps one notch at a time as airspeed decreases. To recover, apply full power, turn off carb heat, maintain altitude, and retract flaps incrementally as cruise airspeed is resumed.

Power-Off Stalls simulate a landing approach: clear the area (CHAMPS), apply carb heat and $1500,RPM$, add flaps at $85,KTS$, establish a $60,KTS$ glide ($500,FPM$ descent), then pull throttle to idle and pitch up until the stall occurs. Recovery involves full power, lowering the pitch, and retracting flaps once a positive rate of climb is established. For Power-On Stalls (simulating takeoff), clear the area, slow to $50,KTS$, apply full power, and pitch up until the stall. Recovery involves lowering the pitch and resuming a climb out at $67,KTS$.

Spins are recovered using the PARED acronym: Power to idle, Ailerons neutral, Rudder full opposite the direction of rotation, and Elevator forward to break the stall. Steep Turns are performed at $45\text{--}50^{\circ}$ bank angles at $97,KTS$ ($2200,RPM$). Adding power to $2350,RPM$ helps maintain altitude and airspeed during the turn.

Meteorological Hazards and Principles

Wind shear is a sudden change in wind velocity or direction associated with microbursts, thunderstorms, frontal surfaces, or jet streams. Recognition includes fluctuations in Airspeed (AS), Groundspeed (GS), and Vertical Speed (VSI). Reaction for takeoff or approach should be a delay in flight.

Wake turbulence is caused by wingtip vortices from heavy aircraft. To avoid it, stay at or above the preceding aircraft's final approach path and land beyond its touchdown point. When taking off, rotate prior to the preceding aircraft's rotation point and remain upwind of the path.

Left-turning tendencies include Slipstream (corkscrew airflow hitting the left stabilizer), Torque (engine rotating clockwise causes a counter-clockwise roll), P-factor (asymmetrical propeller loading where the descending blade takes a "bigger bite"), and Gyroscopic Precession (force felt $90^{\circ}$ in the direction of rotation).

Airport Operations and Communication

Standard traffic patterns are normally to the left, with an altitude of $1000,ft,AGL$ (rounded up). For example, at 3J1 (left traffic), the pattern altitude is $1100,ft,MSL$ in Class G. At LHW or TBR, patterns are also left at $1100,ft$ or $1200,ft,MSL$ respectively, within Class E (beginning at $700,ft,AGL$).

Radio communications follow the structure: "Who you are talking to, who you are, where you are, and intentions." At non-towered airports, use the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) to coordinate with other pilots. Announcements should be made at $8,miles$ out, $3,miles$ out, entering the downwind on the $45^{\circ}$, turning base, turning final, and when clear of the runway.

Light gun signals provide instructions if radio fail: Steady Green (cleared for takeoff/land), Flashing Green (cleared to taxi/return for landing), Steady Red (stop/give way and continue circling), Flashing Red (taxi clear of runway/airport unsafe), Flashing White (return to start), and Alternating Red/Green (exercise extreme caution).

Questions & Discussion

If the engine fails before rotating? Pull the throttle to idle and apply brakes. If the engine fails with runway remaining? Land back on the runway. Runway specific engine failure locations for Savannah? For Runway 28, the target is the golf course; for Runway 10, the target is 21; for Runway 19, the target is Dean Forest Road; for Runway 1, the target is the hotel. How is carb heat indicated? An initial drop in RPM, followed by a rise in RPM as the ice melts. What triggers the use of Special VFR? It is a request to fly in controlled airspace with less than VFR minimums, but it is not permitted for student pilots at KSAV. What defines an abandoned runway? Marked with a large X, either as a lighted sign or painted/placed on the entrance. What are the crosswind taxi corrections? "Climb into a headwind and dive out of a tailwind." For a headwind, use up-aileron on the windward side and neutral elevator. For a tailwind, use down-aileron on the windward side and down elevator (pushing forward).