Religious Studies 200-01: Religion, Myths, and Worldviews - Bias in the Study of Religion

Bias in the Study of Religion

A Biased Canon: Neglect of African Religions

  • Evidence from World Religions Charts (1905 & 2005):

    • In 1905, African traditional religions had more practitioners than Buddhism.

    • Even in 2005, African religions had significantly more members than Mormons, Jews, or Sikhs.

    • Despite their large number of adherents, most religious studies textbooks disproportionately ignore African traditions, as noted on page 32 of the textbook.

  • Historical Omission:

    • The massive commemorative volume from the Chicago World Congress of Religions in 1893 makes no mention of African religious traditions.

    • Most texts on "world religions" historically, and until quite recently, omitted African traditions.

  • Double Standards in Textbooks:

    • Modern textbooks often praise practices found in India while disparaging similar ones in Africa.

    • Example from Ninian Smart: He identifies "sacrifice" as a "central ritual" in Indian religions but dismisses African sacrifices as merely similar to those found "elsewhere in the world." (Further examples are in the textbook, pp. 35-38).

  • Historical Presence of Africans in Europe:

    • The neglect of African culture and religion was not always the case in Europe.

    • Magdeburg Cathedral Sculpture: Features a Christian crusader depicted as a Black African, indicating a historical awareness and acceptance.

    • Dr. Anton Wilhelm Amo (1703-1759): Born in Ghana, he obtained his doctorate in Philosophy from the University of Wittenberg in 1734 and taught at the University of Halle before returning to Africa. A monument in Halle, Germany, commemorates him.

  • Systematic Downgrading during the Enlightenment:

    • With the dawn of the Enlightenment, Africa, Africans, and African religions were systematically downgraded by influential figures like Voltaire, Hume, Kant, and Hegel (See textbook pp. 38-41).

    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Made numerous racist comments, including the statement that "Their children are slowly and with difficulty taught to walk." Similar statements were common among European philosophers (pp. 39-41).

  • Impact of "The Sacred Books of the East" (1879-1894):

    • Edited by German-born Oxford scholar Max Müller (1823-1900), this work created an accessible canon of religious texts that notably excluded African religious traditions, compounding the problem in Religious Studies.

    • Irony: Max Müller himself was fascinated by African religions and frequently mentioned them in his theoretical works.

  • Sophistication of African Religious Leaders and Art:

    • Rt. Rev. Londa Shembe (1944-1989): Leader of the Ekuphakameni branch of the amaNazarites, a successful lawyer, he discredits the notion of unsophisticated African religious leaders.

    • African Icon from Upper Egypt: Similar to Ethiopian icons, it demonstrates a sophistication often overlooked when discussing African religion.

Ninian Smart's Biased Portrayal of African Religion

  • "Not a Single System": Ninian Smart's "The World's Religions" (1989) states that African religion "has never been a single system," implying this is a negative compared to "historical world religions" (Smart 1989:42 & 310).

  • Comparison of Indian and African Worship:

    • India: Smart describes Indians directing worship towards "a large number of gods" because "God is described … as taking many forms," making numerous gods "manifestations of the One Divine Being" enjoying a "refracted theism" (Smart, 1989:45-47 & 300).

    • Africa: This positive framing is not extended to African traditions.

  • Mythic Systems:

    • India: Possesses a mythic system with "a thousand themes" (Smart 1989:47 & 300-310).

    • Africa: African mythologies are reduced to "myths of death and disorder," with "trickster" myths added (Smart 1989:47 & 300-310).

  • Sacrifice:

    • Indian Context: Sacrifice is a "central ritual" interpreted as part of a "vast system of interrelated beliefs" (Smart 1989:54 & 302).

    • African Context: Sacrifice is dismissed as common "elsewhere in the world," merely "a gesture of communication with god…" (Smart 1989:54 & 302).

  • Anthropomorphism:

    • Indian Anthropomorphism: Represents a "splendid act of imagination" (Smart 1989:299 & 54).

    • African Anthropomorphic Religions: Described as "limited and simplistic" (Smart 1989:299 & 54).

  • Polynesian vs. African Myths:

    • Polynesian myths are said to express "vast resources" (Smart 1989:166 & 531).

    • African myths simply "leave much to reflect on" (Smart 1989:166 & 531).

  • Religion and Science:

    • Smart suggests African religions have a particular problem relating to "modern science" and their potential to produce "the philosophical basis for religious pluralism" (Cf. Smart 1989:529-531 & 494-495).

    • However, he gives a positive assessment of Australian Aboriginal religion on these same issues.

Enlightenment Era Racism

  • Anton Wilhelm Amo (Pre-Enlightenment): Before the full thrust of Enlightenment philosophical racism, Ghanaian Anton Wilhelm Amo gained considerable reputation as a rationalist philosopher, appointed lecturer (Privatdozent) at the German University of Halle in 1737.

    • H.W. Debrimmer's "The Presence and Prestige of Africans in Europe" (1979) details the pre-Enlightenment presence and status of Africans in Europe. (Basil: Basler Afrika Bibliographien).

  • Voltaire (1694-1778) on Africans:

    • "The NEGRO race is a species of men as different from ours as the breed of spaniels is from that of greyhounds… if their understanding is not of a different nature from ours, it is at least greatly inferior. They are not capable of any great application or association of ideas, and seem formed neither of the advantages nor abuses or our philosophy." (Voltaire 1901: XXIX-240-242).

  • David Hume (1711-1776) on Negroes:

    • "I suspect that negroes… be naturally inferior to the whites. There never was a civilized nation of any other complexion than white…" (Hume 1906:152-152).

  • Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) on Blacks:

    • "they go naked, have no dwellings, and lack all superfluities which we think so necessary… Their children are slowly and with difficulty taught to walk… Savage man… must accordingly begin with purely animal functions… being destitute of every species of intelligence… his desires never go beyond his physical wants… food, a female, and sleep…" (Rousseau 1966:168 and 171).

  • Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), "Father of the Enlightenment":

    • In "On the different Races of Mankind" (Von den Verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen), first published in 1775, Kant appears to discourage racial mixture and laid a theoretical basis for segregation (Kant 1922:445-460).

  • Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) on Africa:

    • "The Negro… exhibits the natural man in his completely wild and untamed state. We must lay aside all thought of reverence… moral sentiments are quite weak, or more strictly speaking, non-existent… At this point we leave Africa to mention it no more. For it is no historical part of the World…" (Hegel 1944:93 & 99).

19th Century Texts and the Omission of African Religions

  • John Belamy's "The History of all Religions" (1813): India received 15 pages, while African religions received only 2 pages.

  • Charles A. Goodrich's "Religious Ceremonies and Customs" (1835): "The Hindoos" received 10 pages, while "African Tribes" received 3 pages.

  • James Gardner's "The Faiths of the World" (n.d.): Contains many references to India and Indian deities but completely avoids African religions.

  • Late 19th and Early 20th Century:

    • The World Congress of Religions in 1893 had no mention of African religions.

    • Edwin W. Smith's "The Religion of Lower Races: As Illustrated by the African Bantu" (1923) describes African religion as "elementary" and "a religion of fear" (Smith 1923:2-3 & 66).

  • Early Modern Religious Studies Texts (Examples of Omission/Minimization):

    • Trevor Ling, "A History of Religions East and West" (1979) - Nothing on Africa.

    • Robert S. Ellwood, "Many Peoples, Many Faiths" (1982) - Nothing on Africa.

    • David S. Noss, "Man's Religions" (1984) - Nothing on Africa.

    • Ninian Smart, "The Religious Experience of Mankind" (1969) - 5 out of 576 pages on Africa.

    • Ninian Smart, "The World's Religions" (1989) - 19 out of 576 pages on Africa.

    • Theodore Ludwig, "The Sacred Path" (1989) - 4 out of 560 pages on Africa.

    • Nielson et.al., "Religions of the World" (1983) - 9 out of 688 pages on Africa.

    • Bush et.al., "The Religious World" (1988) - 12 out of 304 pages on Africa.

    • Carmondy's, "The Story of World Religions" (1988) - 12 out of 503 pages on Africa.

    • Lessa and Vogt, "Reader in Comparative Religion" (1979) - 22 out of 488 pages on Africa.

    • Whitfield Foy, "Man's Religious Quest" (1978) - 48 out of 725 pages on Africa.

Disparagement of Indian Religions (Historical Context)

  • Figures like John Mill and Lord Macaulay, among other "experts," considered Indian civilization degenerate, using language similar to contemporary descriptions of African life.

  • Hegel on Indian Religions:

    • "the generic principle of the Hindoo Nature… which involves a monstrous bewilderment in regard to all phenomena and relations, we have already recognised as the principle of the Hindoo Spirit. The Hindoo Mythology is therefore only a wild extravagance of Fancy… their whole life and ideas are one unbroken superstition…." (Hegel, "Philosophy of History" (1944:139-141, 155, 157-158, 16).

Max Müller and the "Salvation" of Indian Religions

  • Max Müller's famous quote: "He who knows one, knows none."

  • He played a crucial role in validating Indian religions through his work, such as the "Rg Veda" (1849-1874, 6 vols.), and his editorship of "The Sacred Books of the East."

  • World Congress of Religions, Chicago 1893:

    • Hindu Religion: Praised the Vedas as "the most ancient record of the Aryan nation, nay, of the first humanity our earth knows of… a highly superior order of rationalistic thought pervading all the hymns… God, in the sense of a personal Creator of the universe, is not known in the Veda, and the highest effort of rationalistic thought in India has been to see God in the totality of all that is."

    • Buddhism: Highlighted its alignment with "enlightened thought of the day" and "fundamental principles of evolution and monism," describing Buddha's teachings on evolution as "clear and expansive," viewing the cosmos as "a continuous process unfolding itself in regular order in obedience to natural laws."

Historical Presence of Early Christianity in Africa

  • Early Church Fathers: Early Christianity was centered in Jerusalem, Palestine, Antioch (Syria), Alexandria (Egypt), Carthage (North Africa), and Rome (Italy).

  • Key African Figures in Early Christianity:

    • Tertullian of Carthage (155-240 AD): Son of a Roman centurion, the first prolific writer of Latin Christian literature.

    • Athanasius of Alexandria (296-373 AD): Bishop Alexander (d. 328), known for the Athanasian Creed.

    • St. Augustine of Hippo (c. 354 - c. 430): Author of "The City of God" and "Confessions."

  • Africans in Medieval European Art: The presence of Africans in medieval European art indicates a pre-Enlightenment period where Africans were integrated and recognized, rather than systematically diminished.

Academic Disciplines and their Methods in Religious Studies

Anthropology and Religious Studies

  • Mary Douglas (1921-2007): Influential anthropologist known for "Purity and Danger" and "Natural Symbols."

  • Historical Distinction:

    • Originally, Anthropology studied non-Western societies.

    • Sociology studied Western societies.

  • Modern Distinction:

    • Anthropology primarily uses qualitative methods.

    • Sociology primarily uses quantitative methods.

  • Anthropological Methods:

    • Participant observation.

    • Life history interviews.

    • Topical interviews.

    • Survey research.

  • Origins of Anthropology: Arose from "The Needs of Empire," often focused on regions like Africa and India.

  • Challenges in Fieldwork: Illustrated by a quote where an ethnographer (Ida) is not afraid of wild people, but the Indian informant is afraid of the ethnographer, highlighting the power dynamics.

  • James P. Spradley: Key figure in ethnographic methods, known for "The Ethnographic Interview" and "Participant Observation."

Sociology and Religious Studies

  • Rodney Stark (b. 1934): Prominent sociologist of religion, co-author of "The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation," and author of "For the Glory of God."

  • Origins of Sociology: Emerged from the study of modern society, influenced by thinkers reacting to societal changes.

    • Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Author of "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790), representing the conservative view of society as an organism that must be cultivated.

  • Founders of Modern Sociology:

    • Karl Marx (1818-1883): Advocated a revolutionary view of society as a mechanism.

    • Herbert Spencer (1820-1903): Proposed a liberal view of society as an organism that must develop naturally.

    • Emile Durkheim (1857-1917): Revolutionized sociological study, known for "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life" and "The Rules of Sociological Method."

    • Max Weber (1864-1920): Key figure known for works like "Politics as a Vocation" and "Economy and Society."

  • Sociological Methods (Earl Babbie, "The Practice of Social Research"):

    • Survey research, especially random sampling.

    • Participant observation (often to generate ideas and discover issues).

    • Life history interviews (to supplement other research findings).

  • Random Sample Survey Research: Provides quantitative data for analyzing religious affiliation changes (e.g., percentage change in Canada from 1991 to 2001 for various groups like Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jewish, Roman Catholic, Protestant, Other Christian, No Religion).

History and Religious Studies

  • Ulrich van der Heyden (b. 1954) and Holger Stoecker: Contemporary historians focusing on topics like mission and power in Africa and Asia.

  • Origins of History:

    • Ancient Greek Historians: Thucydides (460 – c. 395 BC), Herodotus (c. 484 – 425 BC), Plutarch (c. 46 – 120 AD).

  • Origins of Modern History:

    • Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886): Father of modern historical methodology, emphasizing primary sources.

  • Historical Research Methods:

    • Primary Sources: Original documents, artifacts, firsthand accounts.

    • Secondary Sources: Interpretations and analyses of primary sources (e.g., Irving Hexham's "The Irony of Apartheid").

    • Archival Research: Systematic study of historical records and documents stored in archives (e.g., German Literature Archive).