Enigma of Reason: In-Depth Notes on Reason, Bias, and Interaction

Interactionist Approach to Reason

  • Developed in Chapters 7-10
  • Objective: Produces and evaluates justifications and arguments in dialogue.
  • Contrasts with Intellectualist Approach:
    • Intellectualist View: Reason aims for better beliefs and decisions independently.
    • Questions for Consideration:
    • Is reason objective or biased?
    • Is it demanding or lazy?
    • Does it benefit the lone reasoner or interactive contexts?

Understanding Bias in Reasoning

  • Adaptive Hypotheses: Testing what reason evolved for doesn’t require historical data.
  • Examine the alignment of cognitive mechanisms with their functions.
Linus Pauling's Case Study
  • Pauling: Nobel Prize-winning chemist who explored vitamin C efficacy against cancer.
  • Initially promoted vitamin C based on a small study.
  • Sought to dismiss larger clinical trials when results were negative, showcasing biased reasoning.
  • Example shows even prominent intellects can fail in objective reasoning.

Questioning Bias

  • Bias Defined:
    • Commonly seen as unfair prejudice.
    • In psychology, refers to systematic mistakes.
  • Cognitive Costs: Biases can sometimes reduce processing costs using heuristics.
Heuristics Versus Objectivity
  • Example of Availability Heuristic: People misjudge frequencies based on recall.
  • Heuristics may lead to error but often save cognitive resources.
  • Cases exist where heuristics lead to better results than complex strategies.

Bias Types in Cognitive Mechanisms

  • First Bias: Stemming from cognitive processing costs, leading to systematic errors.
  • Second Bias: Imbalance in response costs of mistakes—high costs of missing significant information.
  • Example with Bumblebees: Adjustments in behavior to maximize safety versus feeding efficiency, leading to beneficial biases.

Surprise and Cognitive Revision

  • Seeking to maintain accurate environmental representations.
  • Surprise: Serves to adjust expectations based on contradictions to prior beliefs.
  • Importance of addressing unexpected information for better outcomes.

Confirmation Bias

  • Wason's Experiment: Task designed to assess reliance on falsification in reasoning.
  • Results: Illustrate that participants often fail to utilize logical falsification due to biases.
  • Leads to the understanding of confirmation bias as deeply entrenched in reasoning.
  • Evidence from Deanna Kuhn's studies points to difficulties in self-arguing counterpoints.

Consequences of Confirmation Bias

  • Commonly viewed as a flaw in rational reasoning.
  • Challenges for the intellectualist camp regarding reason’s efficacy.
  • Three Major Claims:
    1. Reason carries a confirmation bias.
    2. This bias hampers reason’s aim for accurate beliefs.
    3. The intended function of reason is to cultivate better beliefs.

Intuition Versus Reasoning

  • Debate on whether confirmation bias stems from intuitive processes.
  • Intuition typically aims to provide accurate information based on adaptive histories.
  • Some evidence suggests intuitive responses might prioritize disconfirming data rather than confirming.

Myside Bias: A Distinct Phenomenon

  • Myside Bias: Tendency to find arguments supporting one’s own views while neglecting contrary evidence.
  • Likely evolutionarily advantageous as it supports self-justification.
  • Functions prominently in contexts requiring persuasion, bringing about useful strategies in argumentation.

Practical Implications of Myside Bias

  • Lawyer Analogy: Support for positions over opposing arguments leads to more persuasive communication in practical settings.
  • Can function well even in positive-sum games where cooperation is necessary.
  • Cognitive Labor: Encourages division of cognitive tasks in argumentation settings, optimizing group reasoners.