biomed

• Insulin - A protein hormone secreted by the pancreas; essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates and the regulation of glucose levels in the blood.

• Metabolism - The chemical reaction processes of breaking down molecules for energy and of using simple building blocks to build up more complex molecules needed for growth and repair.

• Homeostasis - The maintenance of stable internal physiological conditions (like body temperature or the pH of blood), which enables the optimal functioning of an organism.

• Hyperglycemia - An excess of sugar in the blood.

• Feedback Loop - How the body maintains homeostasis by monitoring changes in the internal and external environment and feeding this information back to the body so it can make necessary changes (e.g., control of body temperature, heart rate, and the concentration of sugar in the blood).

• Pancreas - Produces enzymes for digestion and hormones like insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar.

• Glucose - A monosaccharide, or simple sugar, with the chemical formula С6H12O6; made primarily by plants.

• Hormone - A signaling molecule produced by glands. A hormone induces a specific effect on the activity of cells.

• Insulin Resistance - A resistance to the hormone insulin, resulting in increasing blood sugar.

• Glucagon - A hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.

• Hormone Action: How hormones act as signaling molecules. They signal the pancreas to produce insulin, which tells the cells in our body to take in glucose. Glucose is then used to produce energy to fuel our body's activities. Excess glucose is stored in the liver.

• The Role of the Pancreas in Hormone Secretion: The pancreas helps regulate blood sugar by producing and releasing insulin and glucagon.

• Feedback Loops: How feedback loops maintain homeostasis. Feedback loops maintain homeostasis by monitoring changes in the internal and external environment and feeding this information back to the body so that it can make the necessary changes. The control of body temperature, heart rate, and the concentration of sugar in the blood are all regulated by these feedback mechanisms.

• Positive Feedback: Causes a reinforcement of the original action. The input causes the reaction to increase.
• Negative Feedback: Causes the system to stop the original action and to either take no actions or to perform an opposite action.

• Examples of Feedback Loops in Blood Sugar Regulation: In between meals, excess glucose is stored in the liver. Between meals, when blood glucose levels drop, another pancreatic hormone, glucagon, stimulates the liver to release stored glucose into the bloodstream.

• The Role of Glucose in the Body: Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for cells. As carbohydrates are metabolized, glucose is released into the bloodstream for use by our bodies to make energy. The pancreas plays an important role in our body's use of glucose.

• How the Body Uses Glucose for Energy: The body uses glucose for energy by releasing insulin, which helps glucose to pass through the cell membrane and get into the cells to be used for energy.

• Blood Sugar Regulation: The roles of insulin and glucagon in blood sugar regulation. Insulin and glucagon are vital for maintaining moderate blood sugar levels. Insulin helps the cells absorb glucose from the blood, while glucagon triggers a release of glucose from the liver.

• What Happens When Insulin Binds to Its Receptor on a Cell: When insulin binds to its receptor on a cell, the insulin receptor signals the glucose transporter to open and allow glucose to pass through the cell membrane.

• Differences Between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes: Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition in which the body's immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing cells. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas produces little to no insulin (beta cells are destroyed; present in early childhood). In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas makes insulin, but the cells in the body do not respond to it; this is known as insulin resistance. This is caused by lifestyle choices and factors.

• Causes, Risk Factors, and Complications of Diabetes: When cells are unable to take in the necessary glucose to create energy, blood glucose levels rise, leading to life-threatening health conditions. These conditions can be caused by factors like genetics, lifestyle (obesity, inactivity), and autoimmune reactions. Complications can include heart disease, kidney disease, blindness, and nerve damage.

• The Role of Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes: Eventually, the pancreas no longer produces enough insulin to overcome the cells' resistance. The result is higher blood glucose levels, and ultimately prediabetes or type 2 diabetes.

• Glycogen: Its Function in the Body: Glycogen is a type of carbohydrate that serves as a crucial energy reserve for the body; acts as a form of energy when blood glucose levels are low. Where It Is Stored: Glycogen is stored both in the liver and muscle. In the liver, it helps maintain sugar-dependent functions throughout the body, including stabilizing blood sugar levels. Muscle glycogen: In skeletal muscles, glycogen provides energy to support physical activity during high-intensity exercise.

• Macromolecules: Which macromolecule provides the most long-term energy storage: Lipids (Fat).

• Complications of Uncontrolled Diabetes: Understand the effects of long-term uncontrolled diabetes on the body:
- Neuropathy: High blood sugar can damage nerves throughout the body, leading to peripheral neuropathy.
- Kidney Disease: High blood sugar can damage the kidneys' filtering ability, leading to kidney failure and the need for dialysis or a kidney transplant.
- High blood sugar levels, frequent urination, excessive thirst, blurred vision.
- Nephropathy: Damage to or disease of the kidneys.

• Why Diabetics Sometimes Experience Extreme Thirst or Blurry Vision:
- Blurry Vision: High glucose can lead to changes in the fluid levels in the eyes, causing the lenses to swell.
- Extreme Thirst: When blood sugar is high, the kidneys work to filter and excrete the excess glucose through urine. This process leads to an increase in urine production (polyuria) which causes dehydration.

• Type 1 vs. Type 2 Diabetes: Explain the differences between the two types. Type 2 diabetes: the pancreas makes insulin, but the cells in the body don't respond to it (insulin resistance). Type 1 diabetes: the pancreas produces little to no insulin, which can't accommodate for the amount of glucose (autoimmune).

• Insulin Regulation: How insulin helps regulate blood glucose levels. Insulin acts as a key to help glucose enter into the body's cells for energy.

• Negative Feedback Loops: Describe how negative feedback loops maintain homeostasis in blood sugar regulation. This process is a negative feedback loop because the initial stimulus (high or low blood sugar) triggers a response that counteracts the change, bringing blood sugar back towards the normal range.

• Lifestyle Changes: Identify lifestyle changes that can help prevent Type 2 diabetes.
1. Eating a healthy diet low in carbohydrates: Limits the amount of glucose in the bloodstream.
2. Increasing exercise: Convert glucose into energy to support your activity level and reduces the amount of glucose in your body.
3. Weight loss: Excess glucose is stored in lipids. Losing weight reduces the amount of glucose in your body.

• Hyperglycemia: Explain why untreated hyperglycemia is dangerous for the body. Untreated hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) is dangerous because it can lead to serious long-term complications affecting the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and heart.