Dubwise: Reasoning from the Reggae Underground - The Story of Reggae in Canada and the Caribbean and the Diaspora

Foundational Performance: In the fall of $1979$, a significant cultural event took place in Toronto at the Rastafarian Cultural Workshop. Lillian Allen, a prominent reggae poet, performed for approximately $30$ people in a venue above a shop on Eglinton Avenue. This area was a hub for Caribbean culture, noted for its diverse food (beef patties, rotis, mangoes) and numerous reggae record stores.
Definition of Dub Poetry: Dub poetry is defined as verse written in Jamaican language (patois) that adheres to the rhythmic structures of reggae music. While readable on paper, it is primarily a performance art.
Dub Poet vs. Deejay:
- Deejays (Reggae Rappers): Their vocal delivery is typically shaped by an existing reggae beat.
- Dub Poets: The meter of their verse often dictates and shapes the music composed specifically for the poem.
Pioneers of the Movement:
- England: Linton Kwesi Johnson and Benjamin Zephaniah.
- Jamaica: Oku Onuora, Mutabaruka, Jean Breeze, Mikey Smith, Afua Cooper, and the group Poets in Unity.
- Canada: Lillian Allen, Clifton Joseph, I-Shaka, Devon Haughton, and Ahdri Zhina Mandiela.

Relocation and Influence: Allen moved to Canada from Jamaica in the early $1970s$ . Her work was influenced by the social justice themes of Bob Marley and the dialect poetry of Louise Bennett.
Mainstream Breakthrough: Allen's debut album, Revolutionary Tea Party, won a Juno Award in $1987$ , marking a transition from underground sessions to national television broadcasts like the CBC.
Themes and Impact: Allen's poetry introduced a feminist lens to reggae, addressing issues such as systemic exploitation, domestic violence, and police brutality.
- "I Fight Back": Discusses the experiences of Caribbean women working as domestic laborers in Canada.
- "Riddim and Hard Times": References the $1978$ police shooting of Albert Johnson in Toronto.
- "Rub A Dub Style Inna Regent Park": One of the first works to explicitly name and describe black communities in Toronto, such as Regent Park, Jane and Finch, and Malvern.

Early Migration: In the late $1960s$ and early $1970s$ , several established Jamaican artists migrated to Canada, including Stranger Cole, Jo Jo Bennett, Nana McLean, Leroy Sibbles, and Jackie Mittoo.
The Studio One Connection: Leroy Sibbles (bass/vocals) and Jackie Mittoo (keyboards) were legendary house musicians at Clement "Coxsone" Dodd’s Studio One in Jamaica. They were responsible for the foundational "Full Up" rhythm, later sampled in the hit song "Pass the Dutchie."
Ishan People: One of the first significant Jamaican-Canadian bands. They collaborated with Bruce Cockburn on the hit "Wondering Where the Lions Are" in $1979$ . The band was produced by David Clayton-Thomas (of Blood, Sweat, and Tears) for their $1977$ self-titled album.
Comparison to UK Infrastructure: Unlike the UK, which had established labels like Trojan and Island Records to promote reggae, Canada lacked a formal infrastructure, forcing bands to rely on independent releases, college radio, and alternative publications like Now or Fuse.

Formation and Membership: Emerging from the Immi-Can Black community cooperative in Regent Park, Truths and Rights featured members from across the Caribbean diaspora (Trinidad, Guyana, Nova Scotia). Key members included the vocalist Mohjah and percussionist Quammie Williams.
Social Commentary:
- "Acid Rain" ( $1980$ ): Addressed environmental issues, which was rare for reggae at the time.
- "Metro’s No. 1 Problem": Tackled racial violence in Toronto, specifically referencing tensions in the Rexdale area and targeting the South Asian community.
Queen Street West Strip: In the $1980s$ , this area (including venues like The Rivoli, Bamboo, and Horseshoe Tavern) became a melting pot for punk, alt-rock, and reggae/soca introduced by Truths and Rights.
Parachute Club Collaboration: The band Parachute Club, known for the hit "Rise Up," was heavily inspired by Truths and Rights' integration of calypso and soca aesthetics.

Steel Pulse: Hailing from Birmingham (Handsworth), led by David Hinds. Their album Handsworth Revolution ( $1978$ ) was a landmark in British roots reggae, focusing on inner-city struggles and racial injustice.
Linton Kwesi Johnson (LKJ): A Brixton-based poet and activist who coined the term "dub poetry." He was a member of the Black Panther movement in the UK and utilized Jamaican patois to describe the black British experience (e.g., police harassment in "Sonny's Lettah").
Aswad: Founded by Brinsley Forde, a former child actor. Known for their meticulous musicianship and the album New Chapter ( $1981$ ). They created a unique instrumental style known as "A New Chapter of Dub."
Rock Against Racism (RAR): A multi-racial movement where reggae bands (like Steel Pulse and Matumbi) joined punk bands to oppose the rise of the far-right National Front in the late $1970s$ .

Mainstream Conduits: Early American exposure to reggae came via covers and collaborations by Paul Simon ("Mother and Child Reunion"), Johnny Nash ("I Can See Clearly Now"), and Eric Clapton ("I Shot the Sheriff").
American Diasporic Artists:
- Sister Carol: A Rasta deejay who utilized film (Jonathan Demme’s Something Wild) and "International Style" to connect with a multi-lingual Caribbean diaspora (English, Spanish, French, Swahili).
- Shinehead: A pioneer of "raggamuffin rap," fusing hip-hop beats with Jamaican deejaying. His cover of Michael Jackson’s "Billie Jean" and his track "Jamaican in New York" are seminal works of the genre.
Inner Circle and Big Mountain: Bands that achieved massive US chart success (e.g., "Bad Boys" by Inner Circle and "Baby, I Love Your Way" by Big Mountain), though their style leaned more toward pop-influenced reggae than specific diasporic social commentary.

Next Generation: The traditions of Lillian Allen and Truths and Rights continue through Canadian hip-hop artists like Kardinal Offishall and MC Collizhun.
"BaKardi Slang": Kardinal Offishall’s lyrics emphasize that the Toronto diaspora is a blend of various backgrounds (Jamaican, Trini, Bajan, etc.) united by a common Canadian reality.
Contemporary Roots: Reggae remains a vital underground genre in Canada, sustained by artists such as Lazo, Blessed, Sonia Collymore, and the dub poetry of Michael St. George, who focuses on the rights of seniors.