CLST TEST 2 NOTES
Warfare on ‘Minoan’ Crete (3rd-early 2nd Millennium BCE)
The notion of Crete being a ‘peaceful’ society is challenged by the presence of violent conflict.
Observations:
Increase in burials during this period, signifying the role of warfare.
Burials included double-edged bronze daggers, indicating the existence and significance of weapons within society.
Male figurines found depicting daggers, suggesting that weapon carrying was integral to male identity and social roles.
Warfare likely consisted of small-scale raiding expeditions between communities rather than large-scale conflicts.
Resulted in low casualties and destruction, not leading to societal collapse.
‘Mycenaean’ Greece
A complex society that evolved on mainland Greece, significantly influenced by Minoans.
Key Features:
Palaces served as administrative centers, employing an early form of Greek script for governance.
Mycenaean texts record the collection and redistribution of resources by the palace, indicating economic structures.
Clear indications of social hierarchies are visible, particularly in funerary practices.
Wealthy warrior elite represented in grave goods, which included weapons.
Crete integrated into the Mycenaean sphere around 15th century BCE:
Palace of Knossos maintained usage and incorporated Mycenaean scripts into its practices.
A noticeable alteration in burial customs occurred, with the introduction of tombs that contained weapons and jewelry, suggestive of new ruling classes due to Mycenaean influences.
Rise of Warrior Elites
Mycenaean palaces flourished, leading to the introduction of the first bronze swords (Type A).
Swords were significantly longer and represented technological advancements over previous weapons (daggers).
Found in elite tombs, indicating exclusivity and status associated with sword ownership.
These swords were primarily effective in one-on-one combat rather than group battles, focusing the role of warriors to a specific elite group rather than all males.
Common soldiers utilized bronze spears, marking a division in weaponry and fighting capabilities among classes.
Defensive Equipment
Helmets:
Utilization of boar's tusks over felt hats as depicted in Homer's Iliad, suggesting a traditional form but potentially outdated during the composition of the poem.
Rare metal helmets and artistic representations indicate various types of headgear, often adorned with horsehair or plume crests.
Shields:
Made from materials such as wood and leather, with no physical remains found but representations in art suggest two main shapes:
1) Large rectangular shields, fading in popularity after the early Mycenaean period.
2) Figure-of-eight shields, remaining prevalent until the fall of palaces.Often covered in cowhide for protection.
Artistic depictions frequently show warriors without armor; however, archaeological evidence reveals bronze armor, notably a full suit from Dendra, indicating the significance of protective gear within Mycenaean warrior culture.
Chariots
Evidence of Mycenaeans with two-horse chariots exists, though the precise function remains ambiguous due to Greece's geographical challenges.
Two types of chariots observed: square or rounded sides.
Some scholars speculate they were symbolic, emulating Egyptian or Near Eastern elites during warfare, but clay tables suggest operational use in battle.
Archery
Depictions of archers are rare, yet numerous arrowheads indicate mass production of archery equipment.
Noteworthy artifacts include a silver krater from Mycenae illustrating varied warrior formations:
Predominantly spearmen with shields, with a small representation of archers.
A 16th-century BC siege rhyton showcases unique Aegean artwork, highlighting the Mycenaean focus on siege warfare and unit specialization beyond simple raiding.
Naval Warfare
Visual evidence, especially from Thera (Santorini), indicates the use of ships for military transportation for raids or campaigns.
For instance, scenes depict warriors and ships interacting, hinting at significant naval engagements.
Lack of direct imagery of sea battles suggests uncertainty in the nature of naval warfare during this period, even if it likely occurred.
Mycenaean Military Architecture
Mycenaean palaces were heavily fortified, placed on elevated citadels surrounding unprotected settlements.
An evolution of fortifications over time includes:
Cyclopean masonry, utilizing large stones without mortar.
Strategic designs such as bastions to expose attackers’ vulnerabilities, exemplified in structures like the Lion Gate of Mycenae (13th Century BCE).
Citadels maintained crucial access to water sources, such as rainwater reservoirs, demonstrated by Athens’ ‘Fountain House’ on the Acropolis.
Images of Combat and Social Structure
Minoan and Mycenaean art reveals combat imagery, juxtaposing man-to-man and lion-to-man engagements.
Analysis of weapon dominance shows:
Swords establish superiority, with sword-wielders often defeating spear users in combat art.
Vividly, swordsmen appear consistently aggressive, while spearmen are depicted defensively.
War of Elites?
Aegean Late Bronze Age warfare imagery highlights ritualized duels over large-scale battles.
Art reflects the societal status construct, favoring heroic sword-wielders against lesser heroic figures.
Elites used warfare as a means to cement social rank and prestige, with artistic representations filtering out common soldiers and archers as they did not fit the heroic narrative.
The art produced primarily served elite preferences, skewing realistic depictions of actual battlefield scenarios.
The size and nature of armies remain elusive, yet they likely were diverse and substantial despite artistic limitations.
New Weapons
New sword types appear during Mycenaean palace decline, characterized by shorter blades narrowing to points.
Significantly, the Naue II sword emerges around 1230 BCE, likely of central European origin and designed with rivets for strength.
This type of sword becomes standard for future Iron Age weaponry.
Less ornate than earlier varieties, but facilitates mass production and standardization during chaotic times.
New Kinds of Warriors
The Mycenae ‘Warrior Vase’ reveals a cohort of warriors outfitted with standardized armaments—short spears, round shields, and horned helmets.
The emergence of standardized equipment indicates a tactical shift to coordinated efforts of combined units rather than individual dueling among elites.
Collapse of Palace Society
By 1200 BCE, the Mycenaean palace system collapses, leading to loss of writing and new social structures.
Socioeconomic transformations yield simpler economies with decentralized rural communities.
Artifacts such as the Palace of Pylos indicate concerns over warfare with unidentified adversaries.
‘Late Bronze Age Collapse’ phenomenon reflects widespread crises across the Near East:
Many states, including the Hittites, collapse, while Egypt survives under significant decline.
Social unrest escalates due to destruction of centralized economies and elite culture influenced by rural disquiet.
Military ramifications manifest as widespread migrations and conflicts, notably with the Sea Peoples, comprising various groups including the Shardana and Peleset (identified as Philistines in biblical contexts).
The Rise of Assyria
Ashur originated as a small city-state along the Tigris River, named after its primary deity.
Over time, Assyria evolves into a territorial state that dominates the Tigris valley.
First millennium BCE witnesses Assyria achieving dominance, culminating in the conquest of Egypt.
Militaristic State of Assyria
The Assyrian army serves as a core structural element of society.
Military conscription open to all men, with all state officials, regardless of roles, designated as army members.
The king bears the primary responsibility to lead and expand territory, supported by influential noble ranks (often eunuchs as leaders).
Agricultural lands fall under royal dominion, offered to citizens in return for military service.
The state possesses a permanent military force composed of soldiers and laborers.
Assyrian Army
Transition during the 8th century BCE shifted from annual troop levies to a standing professional army, allowing for year-round readiness.
Previously, summer was the main campaigning season due to agriculture, but shifts in military practices allowed for flexible timing without agricultural constraints.
The army integrates auxiliary troops from conquered peoples and subjects, forming bulk infantry, while Assyrians comprised the elite corps.
Diverse origins and languages enrich the army's composition.
Units operate under both royal and provincial governors, while the navy consists of Phoenician seafarers.
Decline of the War Chariot
The introduction of true cavalry rendered war chariots less crucial, as mountainous campaigns surpassed flat terrain suitable for wheels.
Chariots become ceremonial items for royalty rather than practical combat vehicles.
Cavalry remains the predominant military branch, characterized by flexible and economically practical mounted archers and lancers.
War and Economy
Conquered populations were often forced into labor for agricultural or construction projects, leading to new societal structures forged by warfare.
Successful kings gained reputations as active builders, and they became role models for other elites.
Tax exemptions granted to wealthy elites, contrasting sharply with limited freedoms afforded to lower classes.
A New Royal City: Kalhu
King Ashurnasirpal II developed the city of Kalhu, encompassing an 8 km city wall over 360 hectares.
The inauguration banquet included 69,573 invitees over a luxurious 10-day celebration.
War and Peace
Unlike other empires, Assyrian kings avoided claims of divine status but presented themselves as earthly representatives of the god Ashur.
Core mission involved the realm's expansion in service of divine order.
Warfare was sanctified by religious tenets, with victories indicating divine favor.
A polytheistic society tolerated foreign gods but upheld Assyrian deities as supreme.
Assyrians and The Siege of Lachish (701 BCE)
Lachish, a fortified city within Judah, is besieged and subsequently captured by the Assyrians.
Jerusalem was also threatened but ultimately spared after the king, Hezekiah, offered substantial tribute.
Narratives of the siege and struggles are memorialized in palace reliefs.
The Third Campaign of Sennacherib (701 BCE)
King Sennacherib launched a campaign to chastise vassal states within North Syria and the Levant influenced by Egyptian instigations.
Success included the conquest of cities and a decisive victory over the Egyptian forces.
Siege of Jerusalem and its associated events documented by both biblical accounts and Assyrian inscriptions.
Events depicted in reliefs show various moments, from attacking with siege equipment to receiving prisoners.
The Battle of Til-Tuba (653 BCE)
This battle illustrates a pitched confrontation between Assyrian forces and the Elamites, as documented in palace reliefs and narrative records.
King Teumman of Elam sought to reclaim his throne, eventually leading to a battle against the Assyrians under King Ashurbanipal.
The confrontation took place at Til-Tuba, culminating in a decisive victory and significant loss for the Elamites.
The Fate of Teumman and his son Tammaritu
In the aftermath of battle, Teumman suffers a fatal injury and attempts to flee, a narrative emphasizing the disastrous consequences of his situation.
Accidental chariot failure contributes to his demise, altering perceptions of divine support and omens.
His head is taken as a trophy and symbol of Assyrian supremacy.
The Assyrian King
Ashurbanipal notably was not present during the battle, yet victory is framed as a royal achievement.
A poem attributed to the king elucidates his absence, speculating divine intention behind it.
Celebrating Royal Accomplishments
Assyrian rulers exhibited goods from conquests to demonstrate wealth and power.
Monumental architecture and reliefs conveyed authority and military efficacy.
Public displays of captives served multiple purposes, including psychological reassurance to Assyrians while intimidating subject populations.
Violence was normalized as necessary for establishing order, while post-victory narratives depicted kings as benevolent figures restoring peace.
The Fall of Assyria
The reliance on force rendered Assyria vulnerable; as internal loyalty diminished, control became impractical.
Elite governance over diverse subjects proved unsustainable in the face of expanding resource needs.
The empire, peaked around 640 BCE, collapsed swiftly, falling to coalitions of Babylonians and Medes.
Dark Ages in Greece
Following the Mycenaean palace collapse, a period lasting until the 8th century BCE emerges.
Collective governance appears centered around settlements (polis), becoming the hub for political and religious activities.
Evidence of warfare is chiefly derived from visual documentation, archaeology, and poetic texts such as Homer's works.
Military organization features infantry chiefly outfitted with two spears, swords, bows, helmets, and shields.
Hoplites and the Hoplon
As armies evolved into the Archaic and Classical Periods, hoplites became the cornerstone, forming phalanxes.
Development of the hoplon shield, crucial for front-side defense but hindering mobility.
Hoplite specifications:
Constructed of multi-layered wood, frequently reinforced with bronze.
Hoplite Gear
The early body armors consisted of the bronze muscle cuirass, indicative of the Greek warrior ethos emphasizing physical representativeness.
The linothorax cuirass emerged as a lighter, cheaper alternative, fashioned from glued linen layers.
Preferred helmets included:
Corinthian helmet: Widely recognized, providing substantial protection but limiting visibility and hearing.
Weapons such as spears were initially of bronze, later transitioning to iron over time, signifying shifts in material usage and weapon stratagems.
Hoplites and Polis Society
Hoplites represented wealthier classes, necessitating personal investment in their own armor and equipment.
The evolution of tactics aligns with the development of the polis, driven by agricultural defense needs and citizen responsibilities for military service.
Hoplites’ dual role as soldiers and active political citizens underlines their pervasive influence within polis decision-making processes.
Hoplite Warfare
Defined specialization allows hoplites optimal effectiveness in defensive encounters on level terrain.
Emphasis on swift engagements by amateur soldiers illustrates the structure of citizen warfare.
Hoplite battles reflect collective social values, emphasizing unity and teamwork rather than hierarchical military roles from the Bronze Age.
Abandonment of positions was discouraged; doing so risked vulnerability for the entire phalanx.
Greek Warfare
Warfare characteristics during this era often revolved around limited encounters focused on establishing dominance over rival city-states.
Short skirmishes tended to culminate in singular decisive battles.
Citizen militias primarily constituted these armies; however, professional hoplites formed the foremost fighting ranks.
Phases of hoplite battle typically included:
1) Divination 2) Sacrifice 3) Phalanx formation 4) Marching rituals 5) Battle (notably the othismos) 6) Trophy erecting 7) Burial of the deceased.
Other Warriors
Hoplite-centric narratives downplayed alternative troop roles present in battles before the 5th century BCE.
Vulnerability of hoplite formations suggests the presence of light infantry, arrows, and slingers, predominantly viewed as mercenaries by the fifth century BCE.
Cavalry remained uncommon due to cost and terrain limitations across most Greek regions.
Sparta
Overview of the Laconia region surrounding Sparta, emphasizing the Messenian conquest and control over the southern Peloponnese.
Spartan Training
Spartan boys commenced military training at age 7, furthered through shared living among peers.
Toughened training emphasized endurance, leading to possible elite corps selection among the strongest.
Full adulthood and army enrollment granted at age 20, fulfilling the expectation of producing exemplary citizens and warriors.
The Spartan Army
Valley Leadership:
Each campaign was spearheaded by one of the two Spartan kings.
Comprising the Spartiatae as elite property owners with specified obligations and required contributions within Spartan society.
The Perioikoi were free yet politically limited citizens residing in surrounding towns.
Helots acted as a subservient class, assisting in various capacities, contributing to militaristic and support functions.
The Spartan Warrior Look
Distinct identifiers included:
Long hair and crimson cloaks paired with bronze shields.
Standardization emerged over the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, featured by the iconic Lambda symbol on shields.
Helmet styles transitioned from Corinthian to more streamlined designs enhancing visibility.
Mantinea (418 BCE)
Strategic overview of the Spartan engagement at Mantinea as chronicled by Thucydides:
Initial miscalculations amidst haste leading to hasty battle line formations against formidable foes.
Despite early setbacks, Spartan discipline secured victory through rapid adaptation and troop management.
Mantinea (418 BCE) Continued
Description of the unfolding battle:
Spartans advanced in musical synchrony, responding to enemy movements by adjusting formations in real-time.
King Agis faced crucial decisions to reposition troops, attempting to mitigate surrounding threats but encountering timing issues.
Overall combat dynamics resulted in apparent missteps yet achieved success as Spartan prowess prevailed across remaining battle lines.
“The Athenians from the Lacedaemonians at Pylos”
Contextual analysis of the Athenian triumph over Spartans at Pylos (425/4 BCE).
The event signified a historical turning point, with captured Spartan shields ceremoniously displayed by the victors, emphasizing propaganda and humiliation for the once-invincible Spartan reputation.