6.1-6.4+End+of+West+and+New+South

Topic 6.3 Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development

Changing Perspectives on the West

  • Early views saw the West as a frontier for European conquest.

  • Incorporation of diverse groups:

    • Native Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian immigrants also shaped culture and diversity.

The Closing of the Frontier

  • 1889: Oklahoma Territory opened for settlement; significant homesteading activity occurred.

  • 1890: U.S. Census declared the frontier settled (with minor exceptions).

Turner's Frontier Thesis

  • 1893: Frederick Jackson Turner published "The Significance of the Frontier in American History"

    • Frontier settlers underwent an evolutionary process of civilizational development.

    • Stages of settlement included:

      • Hunters

      • Cattle ranchers

      • Miners and farmers

      • Town founders

    • Effects of frontier experience:

      • Shaped American culture (independence, democracy) but also led to wastefulness of resources.

Role of Towns and Cities

  • Historians argue that frontier cities played a primary role from the beginning.

    • Town developers sought to claim county seats, rail depots, etc.

    • Urban markets, linked by railroads, enabled cattle rancher economic success.

    • Frontier development interdependent with growth of towns and cities after 1865.

Concerns Over a Closing Frontier

  • Turner feared the loss of the frontier would lead to class divisions like in Europe.

  • 1890s: Shift in movement from rural to urban; industries drew migrants away from agriculture.

American Indians in the West

  • By 1865, diverse tribes occupied the West:

    • Permanent settlers (e.g., Hopi, Zuni) vs. nomadic groups (e.g., Sioux, Blackfoot).

  • Cultural adaptation influenced by the introduction of horses.

  • Conflict arose from U.S. misunderstandings of Plains tribes' nomadic practices.

Reservation Policy

  • 1830s: Andrew Jackson's policies relocated eastern tribes to the West, falsely assuming it remained 'Indian country.'

  • 1851: Federal government assigned large tracts of land to Plains tribes, but refusal to remain on reservations remained prevalent.

Indian Wars

  • Settlement by miners and ranchers caused violent conflicts with Plains Indians.

  • Notable events:

    • Sioux War (1866): Sioux ambushed U.S. troops.

    • Gold rush led to further encroachments on Indian lands.

  • Treaties attempted to isolate tribes but met resistance as younger leaders denounced them.

Rising Conflicts in the 1870s

  • Indian Appropriation Act (1871): Ended treaty recognition of tribes.

  • Conflicts included:

    • Red River War (Comanche)

    • Sioux War led by Sitting Bull

  • 1876: Custer defeated at Little Bighorn; Chief Joseph's efforts failed in 1877.

Final Tragedy: Ghost Dance and Wounded Knee

  • Ghost Dance movement aimed at spiritual renewal; Sitting Bull was killed during its suppression.

  • December 1890: Wounded Knee massacre led to the deaths of over 200 American Indians.

Assimilation and Reform

  • Helen Hunt Jackson's "A Century of Dishonor" (1881) created sympathy but also support for Indian culture's end.

  • Focus on education, job training, conversion efforts led to boarding schools like Carlisle.

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

  • Act aimed to break tribal organizations, splitting land into plots.

  • Citizenship granted for those who adopted civilized practices; however, most land ended up sold to White settlers, leading to loss of Indian-owned lands.

Changes in the 20th and 21st Centuries

  • 1924: U.S. citizenship granted to all American Indians.

  • 1934: Indian Reorganization Act promoted tribal culture reestablishment.

Mexican Americans in the Southwest

  • Mexico's 1821 independence increased trade and influenced the region.

  • Santa Fe Trail was vital for economic and cultural exchange; legal complications often jeopardized land rights for Mexican landowners.

The Conservation Movement

  • Growing environmental concerns initiated efforts to preserve western lands and resources.

  • Significant acts included:

    • Forest Reserve Act of 1891

    • Forest Management Act of 1897

  • Conservationists (e.g., John Muir) sought to protect nature from exploitation.

Topic 6.3 Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development

Changing Perspectives on the West

  • Early views: the West as a European conquest frontier.

  • Diverse contributions: Native Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian immigrants shaped culture.

The Closing of the Frontier

  • 1889: Oklahoma Territory opened; homesteading increased.

  • 1890: U.S. Census: frontier settled (minor exceptions).

Turner's Frontier Thesis

  • 1893: Frederick Jackson Turner published "The Significance of the Frontier in American History".

  • Evolution of frontier settlers through stages: Hunters, cattle ranchers, miners, farmers, town founders.

  • Impact on culture: fostered independence/democracy, but also wasted resources.

Role of Towns and Cities

  • Frontier cities crucial from the start.

  • Town developers aimed for county seats, rail links; urban markets enhanced rancher success.

  • Frontier growth interconnected with town/city expansion post-1865.

Concerns Over a Closing Frontier

  • Turner worried about rising class divisions from a closing frontier.

  • 1890s: Rural to urban shift; industries attracted migrants from agriculture.

American Indians in the West

  • By 1865: Diverse tribes; permanent settlers (Hopi, Zuni) vs. nomads (Sioux, Blackfoot).

  • Horses influenced cultural adaptation; conflicts arose from misunderstandings of nomadic life.

Reservation Policy

  • 1830s: Andrew Jackson's relocation policies eliminated assumptions of untouched 'Indian country'.

  • 1851: Large lands assigned to tribes, but many refused reservations.

Indian Wars

  • Miners/ranchers' settlement led to conflicts with Plains Indians.

  • Notable events: Sioux War (1866), Gold rush expansion into Indian territories.

  • Treaty compliance resistance from younger tribe leaders.

Rising Conflicts in the 1870s

  • Indian Appropriation Act (1871): eliminated treaty recognition.

  • Conflicts included: Red River War (Comanche), Sioux War, Custer's defeat (1876); Chief Joseph's efforts failed (1877).

Final Tragedy: Ghost Dance and Wounded Knee

  • Ghost Dance for spiritual renewal; Sitting Bull killed.

  • December 1890: Wounded Knee massacre; 200+ American Indians died.

Assimilation and Reform

  • Helen Hunt Jackson's "A Century of Dishonor" (1881): sparked sympathy but pushed for end of Indian culture.

  • Education, job training, conversion aimed at assimilation; established boarding schools (e.g., Carlisle).

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

  • Aimed to dismantle tribal systems; land divided into plots.

  • Citizenship for adopting 'civilized' practices; most land sold to whites, reducing Indian-owned land.

Changes in the 20th and 21st Centuries

  • 1924: U.S. citizenship granted to all American Indians.

  • 1934: Indian Reorganization Act supported tribal culture revival.

Mexican Americans in the Southwest

  • 1821 Mexican independence boosted trade.

  • Santa Fe Trail: key for economic/cultural exchange; land rights issues for Mexican landowners.

The Conservation Movement

  • Growing environmental concerns led to preservation efforts.

  • Key acts: Forest Reserve Act (1891), Forest Management Act (1897).

  • Conservationists (e.g., John Muir) sought to protect nature.