CRAMMING
Metaethics
Definition: The study of the nature, foundation, and meaning of moral values, principles, and judgments.
Moral Dilemma
Example Situation
After a party, you find your friend's lost wallet containing $100.
You believe you can keep it without her knowing, despite needing the money for a car payment.
Internal conflict arises between the desire to keep the money and the moral obligation to return the wallet.
Reactions to Moral Considerations
Moral considerations present themselves as objective realities.
Objectivism/Moral Realism/Ethical Realism: There exist moral facts that determine true or false moral judgments.
These facts are independent of personal attitudes and socio-cultural contexts.
They are akin to states of affairs in the world that validate moral propositions.
Key Question: Are moral judgments genuinely objective?
Metaphysical Concerns
Rightness and Goodness: These properties would need to be distinct from scientific or logical properties, yet still knowable.
Such properties may be mysterious and would need to compel action through intuition or perception.
Knowledge Worry: How can we attain moral knowledge if these properties are so elusive?
Motivational Aspects
What drives you to return the wallet?
Might stem from a desire or a particular thought.
Critics argue that moral obligations thinly disguise personal desires.
Disagreement in Moral Codes
Moral disagreements question the objectivity of morality.
Diversity in moral views may suggest a lack of objective moral truths.
Peer disagreements about moral issues could be explained by subjective rather than objective bases for morality.
Responses to Moral Developments
Theories of Moral Engagement
Moral Nihilism: Asserts that there are no moral facts.
Cultural Relativism: Defines morality based on a society's guiding principles.
Subjectivism: Establishes moral approval based on individual beliefs or commitments.
Challenges Within These Theories
Moral Nihilism
Skeptical stance; implies morality is non-existent.
Subjectivism and Relativism Concerns
They render some unjust actions permissible, leading to moral catastrophes.
Genuine moral disagreements exist, countering the idea that all perspectives are valid.
Challenges to moral progress and contradicting moral statements.
Ideal Observer Concept
Modified Subjectivist View: Proposes moral acts are right if approved by an ideal observer who is fully informed and rational.
However, this shifts concerns to the mysterious nature of what constitutes 'ideal' approval.
Objectivist Responses to Concerns
Impersonal Practical Reasoning: The structure of reasoning guides moral judgments, not esoteric properties.
Conflict of Belief and Desire: Explains motivation through duty.
Uniformity Across Cultures: Suggests shared moral principles rather than disagreement.
Epistemic Efficacy: Acknowledges varying evidence levels among moral philosophers.
Naturalism vs. Non-naturalism
Naturalistic Approach
Moral facts aligned with natural properties.
Non-naturalistic Perspective
Moral facts as separate from physical verifiability (e.g., Divine Command Theory).
Moral Nihilism and Error Theory
Error Theory: Claims that:
No moral features exist.
Therefore, no moral judgments stand as true.
Moral judgments fail to accurately represent moral qualities.
Originated as a solution to social coordination problems.
Problems Plaguing Error Theory
If Error Theory is correct, then humanity is uniformly incorrect about morality.
Expressivism Overview
Accepts the first three points of Error Theory but disputes the existence of moral descriptions.
Moral statements reflect emotional expressions or imperatives rather than facts.
Moral judgments are neither true nor false.
Challenges for Expressivism
Difficulties arise during moral disagreements.
How to handle cases with clear moral assertions from those with differing views?
Metaethics Discussion
Encourage reflection on the various theories discussed.
Form opinions on these theories and potential responses to their shortcomings.
Utilitarianism
Basic Principles
Actions are correct if they promote happiness; incorrect if they produce unhappiness.
Happiness defined as pleasure and absence of pain.
An act is right if it maximizes utility or overall well-being.
Features of Utilitarianism
Optimific Actions: Maximize overall good in any given circumstance.
Value of Happiness: Considered the sole intrinsic good; thus, hedonistic in nature.
Impartiality: Treat all interests equally; agent-neutrality in moral assessments.
Issues with Utilitarianism
Intention does not impact the moral value of an action; only consequences matter.
Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism (Act-U)
Rightness depends on utility of specific consequences.
Rule Utilitarianism (Rule-U)
Rightness is determined by adherence to beneficial rules rather than individual acts.
Issues with Act-U
Potential for moral disasters; problematic implications for unique moral obligations.
Calculational challenges hinder practical ethical guidance.
Concerns of hedonism; it might fail to account for broader human aspirations.
Kantian Deontology
Core Idea
Categorical Imperative (CI): Unconditional command to act morally.
Formulations of CI
Universalizability: Actions should be applicable universally.
Humanity Formula: Treat individuals as ends, never merely means.
Kingdom of Ends: Everyone's goals coexist harmoniously.
Standard of Right Action in Kantianism
An action is right if consistent with duty as defined by the CI (e.g., don’t lie, don’t cheat).
Strengths of Kantianism
Effectively avoids pitfalls found in Act-U.
Preserves promises and meaningful obligations in personal relationships.
Problems with Kantianism
Practical Dilemmas
Murderer at the Door: The dilemma of lying to protect an innocent life poses serious ethical objections.
Scope of Moral Community: Non-human rights issues emerge when considering persons versus beings lacking rationality.
Virtue Ethics
Concept of Flourishing
Human flourishing is not just enjoyment but involves sociality and reason to achieve actualization.
Understanding Virtues and Vices
Virtues: Traits necessary for flourishing (e.g., courage, justice).
Vices: Traits that inhibit flourishing (e.g., cowardice).
Components of Virtue
Epistemic: Knowledge of moral truths.
Affective: Emotional responses aligned with virtue.
Motivational: Drive to act rightly based on proper reasons.
Standard of Right Action in Virtue Ethics
An action is deemed right if it reflects what a virtuous person would do under similar circumstances.
Challenges for Virtue Ethics
Action guidance concerns arise; unclear how virtues directly dictate moral actions.
Example scenario: Assessing an addict's decision to pursue rehabilitation.
Other Ethical Theories
Rossian Deontology: Right action involves adhering to prima facie duties.
Contractualism: Wrong actions are those that rational individuals could not collectively endorse.