University Study Notes: O-Level History of Pakistan

THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1707–1858)

  • Foundational Context:

    • The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur in 1526.

    • Six great rulers (Babur to Aurangzeb) consolidated the rule from 1526 to 1707.

    • The Golden Age was noted for literature, music, painting, and monuments like the Taj Mahal.

  • Causes of Decline After Aurangzeb (1707):

    • Succession Issues: No definite law of succession existed, leading to fratricidal wars. In the 10 years after Aurangzeb, 12 claimants fought for the throne, dividing the army and draining the treasury.

    • Inefficient Later Mughals: Rulers like Muhammad Shah (titled ‘Rangeela’ for his colorful lifestyle) were corrupt, lazy, and left state affairs to selfish courtiers.

    • Vastness of Empire: The territory was too large to govern effectively from Delhi.

    • Aurangzeb’s Policies: Religious intolerance (re-introduction of Jiziya tax, temple demolition, ban on music/art, and attempts to ban the Hindu custom of Suttee) earned the hostility of non-Muslim subjects (Sikhs, Marathas, Rajputs).

    • Financial Exhaustion: 25 years of Deccan campaigns against Marathas emptied the treasury.

    • Military Stagnation: Failure to advance in science, technology, and modern naval force, leaving them vulnerable to superior Western weaponry.

  • External Factors:

    • Marathan Power: Led by Shivaji (crowned 1674), Marathas defeated Mughals outside Delhi in 1737 and occupied it in 1760.

    • Foreign Invasions:

      • Nadir Shah (Persia): Sacked Delhi in 1739, plundering wealth and the Peacock Throne.

      • Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghanistan): Led 10 invasions (1748–1767). Defeated Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), ending Marathan ambitions for a pan-Indian empire.

ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS AND THE BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY (EIC)

  • Attraction to India: Known as the "Golden Sparrow" due to cotton, silk, jute, spices, gold, and opium. European demand grew due to the Industrial Revolution.

  • British East India Company (EIC):

    • Granted a charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600.

    • First ship at Surat (1608); permission to trade from Emperor Jahangir (1612).

    • Initial base in Bombay (1664); later established strategic ports in Calcutta.

  • British Replacement of the Mughals (1750–1850):

    • Military Superiority: Fruits of the Industrial Revolution yielded superior weapons (gunpowder), disciplined armies, and better communication (railways).

    • Indian Weaknesses: Ethnic, linguistic, and religious divisions. Local rulers often sought British help against rivals.

    • Diplomatic Strategy: Used "Divide and Rule" through subsidiary alliances (Lord Wellesley, 1798), bribing (Mir Jafar at Plassey), and threatening princes.

BRITISH EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION

  • Robert Clive:

    • Battle of Plassey (1757): Defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula after bribing Mir Jafar. Secured Bengal’s resources.

    • Battle of Buxar (1764): Defeated combined forces of Shah Alam II, Mir Qasim, and Shuja-ud-Daula. Secured revenue collection (Diwani) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

  • Warren Hastings: First Governor-General of Bengal. Strengthened revenue systems and captures of Pune and Gwalior.

  • Lord Wellesley/Tipu Sultan: Defeated the "Monster of Mysore," Tipu Sultan, in the 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799) at Seringapatam. Tipu was a formidable enemy aided by the French.

  • Annexations (1840s–1850s):

    • Sindh (1843): Charles Napier provoked Amirs to restore British prestige after a defeat in Afghanistan.

    • Punjab (1849): Annexed following the death of Ranjit Singh and two Sikh Wars.

    • Doctrine of Lapse (1852): Introduced by Lord Dalhousie; EIC annexed states where a ruler died without a male heir (e.g., Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi).

THE 1857 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

  • Causes:

    • Political: Doctrine of Lapse; capture of Oudh (1856); disrespecting the Mughal royal family.

    • Religious/Cultural: Fear of forcible conversion by Christian missionaries; replacement of Persian/Sanskrit with English (1834); abolition of Sattee and Thuggee rituals.

    • Economic: Heavy taxation; destruction of local cotton industry by British factory goods.

    • Military: Greased cartridges lubricated with pig and cow fat (offensive to Muslims and Hindus).

  • Key Events:

    • Mangal Panday: Executed in March 1857 for defying British officers.

    • Meerut Uprising (May 1857): Sepoys refused cartridges; mutiny spread to Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow.

    • Rani of Jhansi: Led rebels; killed in June 1858.

  • Reasons for Failure:

    • Lack of Unity: No common goal; Sikhs/Kashmiri troops supported the British; Hindus did not want to restore the Mughal rule.

    • British Strength: Professional leadership, disciplined army, and control over 3/4ths of the territory.

  • Effects:

    • End of Mughal rule (Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled to Rangoon).

    • Abolition of EIC; British Crown assumed direct control (Government of India Act 1858).

    • Muslims were singled out for harsh punishment; denied government posts.

RELIGIOUS REFORMERS (18TH – 19TH CENTURIES)

  • Shah Wali Ullah (1703–1762):

    • Belief: Muslim decline was due to the neglect of the Quran and sectarian divide.

    • Services: Translated the Quran into Persian; wrote Hujjatullah al-Baligha; invited Ahmad Shah Abdali to fight the Marathas.

  • Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (1786–1831):

    • Jihad Movement: Launched against Sikh tyranny in Punjab (Ranjit Singh banned Azan).

    • Defeat: Betrayed by Pathan tribal chiefs; killed at the Battle of Balakot (1831).

  • Haji Shariat Ullah (1781–1840):

    • Faraizi Movement: Focused on Bengali Muslims performing religious duties (Faraiz).

    • Dar-ul-Harb: Declared India a land under enemy rule; organized peasants against Hindu Zamindars.

SIR SYED AHMED KHAN AND THE ALIGARH MOVEMENT

  • Beliefs: Muslims must acquire Western education and improve relations with the British to survive as a community.

  • Educational Services: Founded the Scientific Society (1863) and MAO College, Aligarh (1875), which later became Aligarh Muslim University (1920).

  • Political Services:

    • Two-Nation Theory: Formulated after the Hindi-Urdu Controversy (1867); predicted Hindus and Muslims could not coexist as one nation.

    • Indian National Congress (INC): Advised Muslims to stay away from the INC (founded 1885), fearing Hindu dominance.

    • Literature: Wrote The Loyal Muhammadans of India and Essays on the Causes of the Indian Revolt to defend Muslims.

EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGES IN PAKISTAN

  • Urdu: Chosen as the national language for national unity and its long history with Indian Muslims. Supported by NUML and Academy of Letters.

  • Regional Languages:

    • Punjabi: Language of the largest province; promoted through PTV/Radio Lahore stations and writers like Munir Niazi.

    • Sindhi: Rich literary background (Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai); Sindhi Literary Board (1948); declared a provincial national language in 1972.

    • Pashto: Academy established in 1950/1954; noted for patriotic poetry (Khushal Khan Khattak).

    • Balochi: Balochi Literary Association founded to develop this oral-tradition language.

THE PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905–1911)

  • Reason for Partition (1905): Administratively too huge (85 million population); aimed to improve Muslim conditions in East Bengal and weaken INC political agitation.

  • Muslim Reaction: Delighted; established a majority in East Bengal with a new capital at Dhaka.

  • INC/Hindu Reaction: Violent protests, Swadeshi Movement (boycott of British goods), and assassination attempts.

  • Reversal (1911): Announced by King George V due to mounting economic and administrative pressure from the INC.

THE ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE (ML) AND EARLY REFORMS

  • Simla Deputation (1906): Led by Sir Aga Khan; Viceroy Minto promised separate electorates for Muslims.

  • Foundation of ML (Dec 1906): Formed in Dhaka to protect Muslim political rights.

  • Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Granted separate electorates to Muslims but gave no real power to legislative councils.

  • Lucknow Pact (1916): High-water mark of Hindu-Muslim unity. INC accepted separate electorates and 1/3rd Muslim seats in the center.

  • Mont-Ford Reforms (1919): Introduced Diarchy in provinces; increased voters to 5.5 million.

  • Rowlatt Act & Amritsar Massacre (1919): British "Black Bills" allowed arrest without warrant. General Dyer killed ~400 unarmed crowds in Jallianwala Bagh.

KHILAFAT AND NON-COOPERATION (1919–1924)

  • Khilafat Movement: Aroused among Indian Muslims to save the Ottoman Caliphate after WWI. Led by Ali Brothers and supported by Gandhi.

  • Failure: Abolished by Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) in 1924. Hijrat Movement (migration to Afghanistan) was an economic disaster for 20,000 Muslims.

  • Chauri-Chaura Incident (1922): 22 policemen killed by a mob; Gandhi ended the movement, leading to Hindu-Muslim fracture.

ROAD TO PAKISTAN (1927–1940)

  • Nehru Report (1928): Rejected separate electorates; prompted Jinnah’s 14 Points (1929).

  • Round Table Conferences (1930–1932): Deadlock between Jinnah and Gandhi over minority rights.

  • Allama Iqbal (1930): Delivered the Allahabad Address, proposing a Muslim state in North-Western India.

  • Ch. Rehmat Ali (1933): Coined the name "Pakistan" in his pamphlet Now or Never.

  • Government of India Act 1935: Increased provincial autonomy; created Sindh and NWFP; condemned by Nehru as a "Charter of Slavery."

  • INC Rule (1937–1939): Congress ministries introduced the Wardha Scheme, Bande Matram anthem, and cow-slaughter bans. Muslims celebrated the "Day of Deliverance" (22 Dec 1939) upon Congress resignations.

  • Lahore Resolution (March 1940): Formal demand for separate, sovereign Muslim states in North-Western and Eastern India.

THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN (1942–1947)

  • Cripps Mission (1942): Offered dominion status after the war; rejected by all.

  • Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1944): Failed as Gandhi rejected the Two-Nation Theory.

  • 1945–46 Elections: ML won 100% of Central Muslim seats and 87% of provincial Muslim votes, proving its sole status.

  • Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Last attempt at Indian unity through "grouping" of provinces; rejected by Nehru’s inflexibility.

  • Direct Action Day (16 Aug 1946): Great Calcutta Killing (~4,000 deaths); convinced the British that partition was inevitable.

  • 3rd June Plan & Radcliffe Award: Mountbatten announced independence. Cyril Radcliffe drew boundaries, giving Gurdaspur and Ferozepur (Muslim majority) to India.

  • Independence: Pakistan (14 Aug 1947), India (15 Aug 1947).

THE POST-INDEPENDENCE CHALLENGES (1947–1948)

  • Refugee Crisis: 10 million migrated; extreme violence; 1 million deaths.

  • Asset Division: India withheld 50 million rupees of financial assets and gave damaged military equipment.

  • Canal Water Dispute: India closed Ferozepur headworks in 1948, threatening Pakistani agriculture.

  • Princely States: India forcibly annexed Hyderabad and Junagadh. First Kashmir War (1948) resulted in the Line of Control.

POLITICAL AND MILITARY EVOLUTION (1948–1999)

  • Constitutional Instability (1948–1958): 7 Prime Ministers in 10 years. Objective Resolution (1949) set Islamic foundations. First constitution achieved in 1956.

  • Ayub Khan (1958–1969): Green Revolution (agriculture); industrial growth (Decade of Progress); 1962 Constitution (Presidential); 1965 Indo-Pak War and Tashkent Accord.

  • Creation of Bangladesh (1971): Sheikh Mujeeb’s 6 Points; economic disparity; Operation Searchlight; Indian intervention led to Pakistan’s surrender in Dhaka.

  • Z.A. Bhutto (1972–1977): 1973 Constitution (Parliamentary); Nationalization policy; Simla Agreement; Hanged in 1979 by Zia.

  • General Zia-ul-Haq (1977–1988): Islamisation (Hudood Ordinance, Zakat); Afghan War ("Afghan Miracle") and huge US aid; 8th Amendment (58-2b powers).

  • Decade of Democracy (1988–1999):

    • Benazir Bhutto: Dismissed twice (1990, 1996) on charges of corruption and confrontation with the "Troika."

    • Nawaz Sharif: Nuclear blasts (May 1998); Motorway project; conflict with Judiciary and Army Chief Pervez Musharraf; toppled in 1999 Bloodless Coup.