Africa Since 1960 and Post-1991 Developments in Ethiopia

Africa Since 1960

The Rise of Independent States in Africa

National Liberation Movement in North Africa

Egypt
  • British protectorate from 1882.
  • Saad Zaghlul requested the end of the British Protectorate.
  • Demonstrations and strikes ensued.
  • Britain declared Egypt’s independence on February 22, 1922.
  • Formally won independence in 1952 following the Young Free Officers.
Libya
  • Achieved independence from Italy under UN Trusteeship (British administration) on December 24, 1951.
Sudan
  • Young Free Officers prioritized Sudan's independence, aiming for incorporation with Egypt.
  • On January 1, 1956, Anglo-Egyptian rule ended, and Sudan became independent.

The French Colonies

  • The liberation of French colonies in North Africa began in the 1950s.
  • French military defeat in Indo-China in 1954 influenced North Africa.
Morocco
  • The Moroccan National Front, led by Sultan Mohammed V, struggled against the French.
  • In 1953, the Riff and Atlas communities revolted.
  • Morocco was proclaimed independent on March 2, 1956, under Sultan Mohammed V.
  • French and Spanish Morocco reunited after independence.
Tunisia
  • Feb. 1920: Liberal Constitutional Party (Destour Party) established, founded by Shayk Taalibi.
  • March 1934: Neo-Destour Party established by Habib Bourguiba.
  • 1954: Franco-Tunisian agreement reached.
  • 1956: Tunisia won independence under Habib Bourguiba.
Algeria
  • “National Liberation Front of Algeria” (FLN), led by Ahmed Ben Bella, waged a guerrilla war against the French (1954-1962).
  • Large number of white settlers formed the “Secret Armed Organization”.
  • Referendum conducted based on an agreement between FLN and France; Algeria voted for independence.
  • Algeria was proclaimed independent on July 1, 1962.

British West Africa

Ghana
  • First led by the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC).
  • In 1949, Kwame Nkrumah founded the Convention People’s Party after leaving UGCC.
  • The Gold Coast won independence in 1957 and was renamed Ghana.
Nigeria
  • Parties established based on geographic and ethnic lines.
  • National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) in Igbo land (Eastern).
  • Yoruba Action Group (AG) in Yoruba country (Western).
  • Northern People’s Congress (NPC) in Fulbe-Hausa (Northern).
  • In 1959, all parties agreed on 1960 as the year of independence.
Sierra Leone and Gambia
  • Became independent in 1961 and 1965, respectively.

French West and Equatorial Africa

  • French sub-Saharan colonies divided into French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa.
  • French West Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), Dahomey (now Benin), and Niger.
  • French Equatorial Africa: Chad, the Central Africa Republic, the Republic of the Congo, and Gabon.
  • In 1958, Charles De Gaulle conducted a referendum due to pressure from the FLN war in Algeria.
  • Guinea (Conakry), under Seko Toure, voted NO and proclaimed itself a Republic on October 2, 1958.
  • Other French colonies remained under French rule until 1960.
  • In 1960, Cameroon, Togo (both under UN trusteeship), and Madagascar became independent.

Portuguese Africa

  • Portugal considered its colonies as overseas territories.
  • Independence movements were violent and protracted.
  • Angola (1975), Mozambique (1975), Cape Verde (1975), and Guinea Bissau (1974) gained independence.

National Liberation Movement in East & Central Africa

British East Africa
Uganda
  • In 1962, Uganda attained independence under Milton Obote.
  • Coalition between the royalist Kabaka Yekka movement and the Uganda Peoples’ Congress (UPC) of Milton Obote.
Tanzania
  • Tanganyika (British trust territory) won independence in 1961 under the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) led by Julius Nyerere.
  • Zanzibar won independence in 1963.
  • In 1964, Tanzania was formed.
Kenya
  • Road to independence was difficult due to white settlers.
  • Kenyan peasants' land was taken.
  • Mau Mau revolt organized between 1952 and 1955; suppressed, and leaders imprisoned, including Jomo Kenyatta.
  • In 1959, the Kenya African Union (KAU) resurrected as KANU (the Kenya African National Union) and won 67% of the votes.
  • Kenya won independence in 1963, and Kenyatta became its first president.
Belgian Congo
  • A colony of Belgium from 1908 until 1960.
  • Congo National Movement launched in 1958 by Patrice Lumumba.
  • January 1959: Riots broke out in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa).
  • May 1960: Lumumba’s MNC Party won parliamentary elections. Lumumba became Prime Minister, and Joseph Kasavubu (ABAKO party) became president.
  • The Belgian Congo achieved independence on June 30, 1960, named the Republic of the Congo.
  • Katanga led by Moise Tshombe and South Kasai started secessionist struggles.
  • On September 5, 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba.
  • Lumumba declared Kasavubu’s action unconstitutional, leading to a crisis.
  • On January 17, 1961, Katangan forces and Belgian Paratroopers, supported by the United States and Belgium, kidnapped and executed Patrice Lumumba.
  • The Katanga secession ended in January 1963 with UN forces' assistance.
  • In 1965, Katanga reincorporated into Congo.
Rwanda and Burundi
  • Colonies of German Protectorate.
  • The Belgian mandate territories became independent by the UN in 1962.
  • The kingdom of Burundi became a republic in November 1966.

National Liberation Movement in Southern Africa

  • Dominated by Great Britain.
  • Included Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Nyasaland (Malawi), Bechuanaland (Botswana), Basutoland (Lesotho), and South Africa.
  • South Africa occupied Southwest Africa (Namibia) after WWI.
  • Liberation movements and armed struggles in the 1960s and 1970s.
Zambia
  • Kenneth Kaunda was the head of the Zambia African National Congress and the United National Independence Party (UNIP).
  • In 1962, UNIP organized civil disobedience against British rule.
  • In 1964, UNIP won the election.
  • On October 24, independent Republic of Zambia under Kaunda was proclaimed.
Malawi
  • Nyasaland became independent in 1964 as Malawi with Hastings Kamuzu Banda as its president.
Lesotho and Botswana
  • In 1966, Basutoland (now Lesotho) and Bechuanaland (renamed Botswana) became independent.
Mauritius and Seychelles
  • The British island colonies became independent in 1968 and 1976, respectively.
Zimbabwe
  • In 1965, white settlers under Ian Smith declared Independence (UDI).
  • Black Africans and the British government rejected this declaration.
  • Africans resorted to guerrilla fighting.
  • A long war was fought by the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) led by Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo.
  • Majority rule established in April 1980.
  • Robert Mugabe became the first Prime Minister, and South Rhodesia adopted the name Zimbabwe.
Namibia
  • Following the end of WWII, South West Africa was taken from Germany and put under South African mandatory rule.
  • “South-West African People’s Organization” (SWAPO) led an anti-colonial struggle.
  • South-West Africa won independence in 1990 and was renamed Namibia.
Equatorial Guinea
  • Spanish Guinea gained independence in 1968 and was renamed Equatorial Guinea.

Apartheid in South Africa

  • South Africa freed from British rule in 1910.
  • The African National Congress (ANC) formed in 1912, aimed at struggling for the rights of the black population.
  • The ANC called for “One man, one vote.”
  • In 1948, the Afrikaner National Party came to power and promoted apartheid.
  • Apartheid denied all political rights to blacks and other non-whites and imposed segregation.
  • In 1952, the ANC, led by Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Nelson Mandela, and Walter Sisulu, waged passive resistance.
  • On March 21, 1960, police fired on demonstrators at Sharpeville (Sharpeville massacre).
  • Many nations enacted economic sanctions.
  • The government arrested opposition leaders and banned all-black political organizations.
  • Mandela was jailed until 1990.
  • Apartheid was abolished, and “one man one vote” was introduced.
  • In April 1994, Mandela won the election.

Pan-Africanism and the OAU

  • Pan-Africanism: the idea that peoples of African descent have common interests and should be unified.
  • Common interest: black liberation struggle against white domination, exploitation, and colonization.
  • The 5th Pan-African Congress at Manchester in October 1945 was unique because African delegates dominated, the focus was the liberation of colonized Africa, and several participants went to Africa to lead their peoples into independence.
  • Ghana–Guinea–Mali(1960) Union was formed in 1958 and disbanded in 1963.
  • African leaders divided over the integrationist aspect of the pan-African movement.
    • Casablanca Group (1961): Ghana, Guinea, Egypt, Mali, Morocco, Libya, and the Algerian government. Favored a strong political union.
    • Monrovia Group: Former French colonies, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Favored a loose confederation.
    • The Brazzaville group included moderate Francophone states joined the Monrovia Group and formed its hard-core.

Foundation of OAU

  • Between May 22-25, 1963, delegates from 32 African countries convened in Addis Ababa to establish the Organization for African Unity (OAU).
  • Objectives:
    • To rid the continent of remaining vestiges of colonialism and apartheid.
    • To promote unity and solidarity.
    • To coordinate cooperation for development.
    • To safeguard sovereignty and territorial integrity.
    • To promote international cooperation.

Successes and Failures of the OAU

  • Success: It eradicated colonialism & white minority rule in Africa.
  • Failures outweighed its successes; inability to bring peace, prosperity, security, and stability.
  • Considered incapable of meeting globalization challenges.
  • From OAU to AU: Launched in July 2002 in Durban, South Africa.

Struggles for Economic Independence

  • Africa achieved economic growth from 1965 to 1974.
  • Downward trend followed.
  • GDP growth barely kept pace with the high rate of population growth.
  • Struggled with international debt, drought, and decline of raw material prices.
  • Raw material exports dropped significantly compared to manufactured imports since the 1960s.

Establishment of Regional Economic Communities

  • Established in different regions to facilitate regional economic integration.
  • Through the African Economic Community (AEC), established under the Abuja Treaty (1991).
  • Major Regional Economic Communities: ECOWAS, COMESA, IGAD, and SADC.

Major Contemporary Issues in Africa

  1. Lack of political stability
  2. Ethnic conflicts
  3. Civil War
  4. Climate change
  5. Population growth
  6. Diseases like HIV/AIDS, Ebola, Malaria
  7. Inadequate infrastructure
  8. Poverty- to fight poverty Africans established economic communities.

Post-1991 Developments in Ethiopia

Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE)

  • In 1988, EPRDF was established by TPLF with EPDM, and OPDO (1989) and SEPDM (1992) joined later.
  • The London Conference (May 1991):
    • Sponsor: USA
    • Mediator: Herman Cohen (USA Assistant Secretary for African Affairs).
    • Participants: Tesfaye Dinka (Derg), Isaias Afwerki (EPLF), Meles Zenawi (EPRDF), and Lencho Letta (OLF).
    • Goal: to set up a transitional government.

The 1991 Transitional Charter and the Formation of TGE

  • On May 28, 1991, EPRDF controlled Addis Abeba.
  • Talks with government representatives broke down.
  • The National Conference (July 1991):
    • Convened based on the agenda from peace talks in London.
    • Established 14 “self-governing regions”.
    • Agreement to conduct a referendum on Eritrean independence (in two years).

Structure of the TGE

  • Constitution: National Charter.
  • Legislative: the Council of Representatives composed of 87 members. EPRDF held 32 seats. 32 political groups were represented.
  • Chairman: Meles Zenawi.
  • Executive: Council of Ministers (17). The OLF held four ministerial positions.
  • Meles Zenawi was elected president of Ethiopia.
  • The OLF withdrew due to the dominance of EPRDF.
  • In March 1993, the TGE expelled members of the SEPDM.
  • In June 1994, 547 members of the Constituent Assembly were chosen, which adopted the FDRE constitution.

The FDRE Constitution

  • December 8, 1994 - the constitution was approved.
  • May-June - members of the HPR were elected.
  • August 21, 1995 - the Constitution came into effect.
  • Established parliamentary system.
  • Created two Federal Houses.
  • Granted Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples of Ethiopia sovereign power up to secession.
  • Recognized human and democratic rights and equality of culture and religion.
  • Created an independent judicial body.
  • Identified Nine Regional States (Ethnic based).
  • There are 106 articles contained in 11 chapters.

Major Challenges Facing Ethiopian Federalism

A) The threat of secession and internal fragmentation;
B) Managing extreme inter-state imbalances;
C) The task of state building especially in the economically impoverished and historically underserved states;
D) Power-sharing in the executive offices;
E) Choice of capital cities (both at the federal level and the state level);
F) The quest for having more than one working languages at the federal level, and
G) The promotion of a uniform human rights standard in the face of an intensely pluralized legal system.

Hydro-Political History of the Nile (Abay) Basin

  • The Nile flows south to north for about 6825 KMs.
  • The Nile has three major tributaries:
    1. Blue Nile (Abay) originated from Sekela, Gojjam.
    2. Tekeze (Atbara) originated from Siemen mountains, and
    3. White Nile - flow into Lake Victoria.
  • Ethiopia contributes about 86% of the Nile water.
  • Nile catchment areas occupy more than 60 % of Ethiopia.
  • Ethiopia utilizes < 1 % of the Nile up until recent times.
  • Nile riparian countries are Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan,

Agreements Signed on the Utilization of the Nile

  1. The 1929 agreement - between Egypt and Britain (representing Sudan).
    • Sudan was granted with 4 billion m3 of water.
    • The agreement gave Egypt the right to veto any project on the Nile.
    • Sudan challenged the agreement after its independence.
  2. The 1959 agreement - between Sudan and Egypt.
    • It granted Egypt 55.5 billion m3 per annum.
    • Sudan’s share increased to 18.5 billion m3.
    • It strengthened a monopoly on the waters of the Nile by Egypt and Sudan.
  3. THE NILE BASIN INITIATIVES (NBI)
    • The above two colonial agreements ignored the natural and legal rights of the upper riparian (bank) countries to utilize their natural resources.
    • An all-inclusive basin-wide institution was established on 22nd February 1999.
    • Goal: Provide a forum for consultation and coordination among the Basin states for the sustainable management and development of the shared Nile Basin water and related resources for win-win benefits.

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)

  • Ethiopia attempted to utilize the Nile since ancient times.
  • Emperor Haile Selassie I. H.I.M attempt was failed due to lack of willingness among international donors to grant loan.
  • April 2011 P.M. Meles Zenawi laid the foundation stone of the GERD.
  • It will have a capacity of 74 billion m3 when completed.
  • It has the capacity of generating 6000 Mega Watts of electric power.
  • Financed by Ethiopians.
  • Currently, more than half of Ethiopia’s > 110 million people do not have access to electricity,

Development Issues & Challenges of the Democratization Process in Ethiopia

  • In 1992, the TGE adopted a free-market economic model.
  • Agricultural-led Development of Industrialization (ALDI) strategy was adopted.
  • Rationale: improving agricultural productivity to transform to an industrialized economy.
  • Ethiopia achieved growth rates:
    • 0.5\% per annum from 1981 to 1991.
    • 5.1\% per annum from 1992 to 2004.
    • 10.9\% per annum from 2005 to 2015.
  • Ethiopia greatly improved internal infrastructure and its ability to attract foreign investment.
    • Road from 18,000 KM in 1991 to 120000 KM now.
  • Challenges:
    • A quarter of Ethiopians lived in abject poverty.
    • 5-18 million Ethiopians dependent on food aid.
    • The constitution has been violated by the government, and there has been gross human rights violation.
    • Uncomfortable political road (5 elections).
    • The constitution itself is contested.
    • Lack of fair distribution of national resources among regional states and economic disparity.