Enlightenment Philosophy, Natural Rights, and the Social Contract
Enlightenment Foundations and Whig Ideology
Key Enlightenment Philosophers:
John Locke: Major Enlightenment philosopher, historical political theorist, and foundational influence on American government.
Baron de Montesquieu: Enlightenment political philosopher who established the concept of dividing governmental power into three distinct branches.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Radical Enlightenment thinker whose writings were considered so revolutionary that his books were banned.
Maximilien Robespierre: An influential and extreme figure associated with the French Revolution.
Influence on the American Founding Fathers:
Key figures of the American founding generation—including George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and John Hancock—were educated on Enlightenment philosophy in school.
The Founding Fathers actively studied and embraced these Enlightenment concepts, using them to construct the political foundations of the United States.
Whig Ideology and Small-'r' Republicanism:
Whig ideology originated with the Whig political party in Great Britain, which was primarily comprised of the gentry and members of the House of Commons.
In the eighteenth century, Whig ideology was categorized as liberal.
Small-'r' republicanism describes a political system in which citizens have a voice in their government and power is divided across multiple branches to prevent centralized tyranny.
Eighteenth-century conservatism, by contrast, defended traditional systems centered on absolute monarchies, traditional authority, and the divine right of kings to rule granted by God.
Evolution of Political Terminology and American Ideology
Shift in Definitions of Conservative and Liberal:
In the United States, conservatism evolved to focus on preserving national traditions, historical foundations, and biblical heritage.
Modern liberalism is frequently identified with progressivism, characterized by pursuing continuous institutional or societal change.
Historical Context of Progressivism:
The Progressive Movement at the turn of the century (spanning from the s to the s, around ) focused on establishing governmental regulation over expanding businesses that operated without boundaries.
Historical progressivism focused on business regulation, contrasting with modern usages of the term.
John Locke and the Concept of Natural Rights
The Nature and Precedence of Natural Rights:
Natural rights are fundamental rights that precede the creation of formal government.
Under Locke's state-of-nature model, an individual born in an isolated environment (such as the middle of the woods with family) possesses natural rights automatically upon birth.
The Three Fundamental Natural Rights:
Life: The fundamental right to live and be secure in one's existence.
Liberty: The right to personal freedom of movement and self-determination (e.g., freedom to move from the cold climate of Maine to Arizona, or to relocate from mountains and lakes to a beach).
Property: The fundamental right to acquire and hold land and personal possessions.
Theological and Historical Connections:
The right to property aligns with Old Testament biblical law found in Leviticus and Numbers, which mandated that land sold during times of poverty must be returned to the original owner or family after a period of years.
Enlightenment thinkers moved away from strict traditional Christian doctrines (such as the crucifixion of Jesus) toward a universal "Creator" God who establishes natural rights and leaves natural law to govern.
Thomas Jefferson modified Locke's fundamental rights from "life, liberty, and property" to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" in the Declaration of Independence.
The central slogan of the French Revolution was structured as "liberty, equality, fraternity."
Historical Inconsistencies and Application:
The Founding Fathers failed to apply natural rights universally, explicitly excluding enslaved individuals and women from these protections.
Ancient Greek, Roman, and Islamic systems historically operated under rulers or kings who exercised absolute authority over their subjects.
While the principles formulated by the Founding Fathers were foundational, their refusal to eradicate slavery and grant equal rights represented a recognized moral failure and hypocrisy.
The Social Contract and the Purpose of Government
The Origin and Function of Government:
Governments are formed primarily to protect life, liberty, and property from external and internal threats.
In a state of nature where neighboring groups face an external threat (such as an attack from an opposing entity like "Mrs. Erdle's room"), individuals form a social contract to establish a mutual defense system.
Mechanisms of the Social Contract:
Citizens voluntarily surrender a portion of their private property through taxation to equip a collective defense force or militia.
The community selects leaders (such as a captain and a lieutenant) from among its members to direct military preparation.
Citizens sacrifice a portion of their individual liberty—such as committing to militia training times a month—and risk their lives to protect the broader community, including their spouses, children, and grandchildren.
Representative Limits on Government Power:
Citizens demand representative governance to prevent the state from levying excessive taxation (such as a tax rate on property).
Representatives ensure that defensive forces remain strictly protective rather than engaging in unprovoked aggressive attacks on outside groups (such as attacking a physical education class at Roswell High School).
Historical Example of a Social Contract:
The Mayflower Compact serves as a direct historical example of a social contract, signed aboard a ship by the Pilgrims to establish a self-governing system for Plymouth Colony.
Government Responsibilities: Internal Order, Trade, and Economy
Internal Order and Crime Control:
Government is responsible for maintaining domestic security against internal threats beyond individual self-defense.
Historical internal threats include organized crime syndicates, such as the Italian mafia operating in Chicago during the s, or South American drug cartels.
Regulation of Trade and Protection Against External Exploitation:
Government acts to protect the domestic economy and manage foreign trade relations.
An example of aggressive external economic exploitation occurred when Great Britain extracted opium from India and forced China to pay for and receive it, causing widespread addiction and conflict.
Currency and Banking Regulation:
Governments regulate and standardize currency systems across various mediums (gold, silver, copper, and paper money) to establish fair commercial exchange rates.
Governments manage national banking systems to ensure consistent domestic and international economic transactions.
Scope of Government Authority and Bureaucracy
Early Limits on Governmental Scope:
For over a century, governmental functions were strictly limited to basic protection, national defense, foreign policy, and monetary regulation.
Traditionally, government was not held responsible for guaranteeing individual healthcare or private employment, operating on the principle that individuals maintained the liberty to seek employment elsewhere.
Historical vs. Modern Federal Bureaucracy:
For over years, the United States presidential cabinet consisted of only four primary officials—Secretary of State (foreign affairs), Attorney General, Secretary of the Treasury, and Secretary of War—along with the Postmaster General for a limited duration.
In modern governance, the executive bureaucracy has expanded to over cabinet-level secretaries and deputy officials to manage extended social and economic regulations.