developmental psychology

Relationships and Love

  • Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

    • Describes love through a triangle comprising three components:

    • Intimacy:

      • Involves sharing personal thoughts and emotions.

      • Not limited to sexual intimacy; includes deep connections like sharing dreams and fears.

    • Passion:

      • Refers to physical attraction and emotional closeness.

      • Lack of physical attraction can harm the relationship.

    • Commitment:

      • Represents a dedication or bond between partners.

      • Can take various forms, including marriage or exclusivity.

    • Different combinations of these components yield various types of love and relationship dynamics.

Social Exchange Theory

  • Definition:

    • A theory suggesting that individuals assess costs and benefits within their relationships, albeit subconsciously.

  • Mechanism:

    • Individuals mentally track their contributions versus what they receive in return (e.g., effort in chores vs. recognition).

    • When perceived costs exceed benefits, individuals may feel justified in ending the relationship.

    • Conversely, a relationship where benefits far outweigh costs is likely to persist and thrive.

Lifespan Development

  • Overview:

    • Encompasses human growth from prenatal stages to death.

    • Important for understanding all phases of life.

Domains of Lifespan Development

  • Physical Development:

    • Covers bodily changes, motor skills, and health across ages.

  • Cognitive Development:

    • Involves learning, memory, and reasoning changes as one ages.

    • Norms vary by age group; intelligence changes over time (e.g., differences in abilities between toddlers and teenagers).

  • Psychosocial Development:

    • Focuses on the interplay of emotions, personality, and social relationships throughout life.

Normative Approach

  • Definition:

    • The study of what constitutes 'normal' development by establishing average milestones for children.

  • Milestones:

    • Examples include typical age ranges for walking, talking, and other developmental markers.

  • Biological and Social Milestones:

    • Recognizes biological events (like puberty) as universal, while social milestones (like starting school) can vary across cultures.

Developmental Theories

  • Continuous Development:

    • Views development as a gradual accumulation of skills and abilities.

  • Discontinuous Development:

    • Sees development as segmented into stages, with specific achievements characteristic of each stage.

  • Universal vs. Individual Development:

    • Universalists argue development milestones are consistent across cultures.

    • Individualists emphasize how cultural practices influence developmental trends.

Freud's Psychosexual Development

  • Concept:

    • Freud posited that childhood experiences significantly shape adult personality.

    • Proposed Stages of Psychosexual Development which include:

    • Oral Stage: Focus on mouth (birth to 18 months).

    • Anal Stage: Focus on bowel control (18 months to 3 years).

    • Phallic Stage: Exploration of genitalia (3 to 6 years).

    • Latency Stage: Social and intellectual skills become dominant (6 to puberty).

    • Genital Stage: Mature sexual intimacy (puberty onward).

  • Significance:

    • Lack of proper parenting during any stage can result in fixation and influence adult behavior.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

  • Focus:

    • Emphasizes the role of social interactions across the lifespan.

  • Stages of Development:

    • Develops eight stages covering life from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage involves a specific conflict:

    1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1)

    2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3)

    3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)

    4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11)

    5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18)

    6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-29)

    7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-64)

    8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+)

  • Key Takeaway:

    • Development is ongoing, extending into adulthood, rather than being confined to childhood.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

  • Concept:

    • Cognitive abilities develop through four specific stages:

    1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2):

      • Experience the world through senses and actions. Important development: Object Permanence.

    2. Preoperational Stage (2-6):

      • Use of language and imagination without logical reasoning. Key concepts: Egocentrism and Pretend Play.

    3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11):

      • Understand concrete events, perform math operations. Challenges: Conservation and logical thought.

    4. Formal Operational Stage (12+):

      • Able to think abstractly, logically, and critically.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

  • Stages:

    • Identifies three levels of moral reasoning:

    • Preconventional Morality:

      • Focus on self-interest, avoiding punishment, and seeking rewards.

    • Conventional Morality:

      • Emphasizes social approval and maintaining order.

    • Postconventional Morality:

      • Driven by internal moral principles and individual rights.

Prenatal Development

  • Stages:

    • Germinal Stage:

    • Lasts from conception to two weeks when the zygote is formed.

    • Embryonic Stage (3-8 weeks):

    • Basic structures develop, the formation of organs begins, and the embryo establishes basic functions.

    • Fetal Stage:

    • Duration from 9 weeks until birth where significant brain development and growth occur.

    • Importance of Prenatal Care:

    • Essential for monitoring the health of both mother and developing fetus to avoid complications.

  • Teratogens:

    • Environmental agents that can cause developmental harm includes substances like alcohol, smoking, and drugs, which can lead to complications such as low birth weight or drug dependency in the child.