Fall of Rome

Key Question: Why did the Roman Empire fall?
- No consensus view exists.
- Consider symptoms of weakness and possible catalysts for demise.
- Social tensions rooted in economic inequality.
- Political issues and the fate of emperors are telling signs of turmoil.

Emerged after the Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE), bringing stability.
Relatively short-lived but accomplished much.
Supported economic and cultural reforms.
Reformed taxation systems and currency (incorporated silver).
Military achievements and expansion:
- Successful conquest into Great Britain.
- Siege of Jerusalem: Acquired wealth and enslaved approximately 100,000 Jews.
Building projects funded by wealth from Jerusalem:
- Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): Largest amphitheater in the world, hosting gladiator contests, chariot racing, mock sea battles.

Sudden and violent eruption of Vesuvius destroyed cities like Pompeii.
Eyewitness account describes the event:
- Normal morning turned catastrophic after 1 PM.
- Fire, debris, and ash covered the region, resulting in thousands of deaths.
- Possible tsunamis and alteration of the coastline.
- Darkness during the day due to falling ash.
Eruption lasted approximately two days.
Rediscovery and excavation:
- Site rediscovered in 1599, thoroughly excavated centuries later.
- Bodies preserved under ash, providing insights into people's reactions.
Government relief efforts:
- Sponsored relief missions with funds from the Roman treasury.
- Emperor Titus visited the destruction.

Considered a golden age of Roman history.
Repudiated dynastic inheritance, opting to appoint successors based on merit.
Nerva:
- Ruled briefly, establishing the new selection process.
- Wise and moderate ruler.
Trajan:
- Considered the best ruler, Rome achieved its greatest territorial extent under him.
- Supported philanthropy, social welfare, and sponsored gladiator contests.
Hadrian:
- Embarked on sophisticated construction projects, including rebuilding the Pantheon.
- Constructed Hadrian's Wall in England, marking the northern boundary.
- Traveled to every region and interacted with subjects.
- Modest, wore military attire, and dined among soldiers.
Marcus Aurelius:
- Effective military commander.
- Author of "Meditations," a work of stoicism, emphasizing service and duty.
- Stressed finding poise in conflict and using nature as inspiration.

Began after the assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus.
Political Crisis: 26 officially recognized emperors in 50 years.
Social and Economic Crisis: Fractured Rome with turmoil and unrest.
Environmental Threat: Outbreak of smallpox, devastating urban centers.
Rome collapses into civil war, divided into three competing states before reunification.
Decline in confidence affects society and economy.
- Revolts and rebellions occur.
- Merchants no longer feel safe, disrupting long-distance trade networks.
- Depopulation of urban centers as people return to rural, farming lifestyles.
Preview of the Middle Ages: Decentralized, localized nature.

Political recognition of Rome's vulnerability.
Divides the empire to share power with a junior emperor.
- A concession that the empire has grown too large for one ruler.
Each emperor supervises a specific region.
System breaks down after multiple emperors die in quick succession, leading to conflict.
By the fourth century, Constantine in the West and Licinius in the East compete for control.

Religious Awakening: Constantine experiences a religious vision during civil war.
Sees the sign of the cross and the words "in this sign conquer."
Adorns soldiers with the sign of the cross before a pivotal battle and attributes victory to Christian faith.
Edict of Milan: Decriminalizes Christianity after defeating Licinius.
Supports the church.
Reforms in currency and the military.
Moves the capital from Rome to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople.
- Shift to the East has profound implications.
- The Western Roman Empire declines, while the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) survives for another thousand years.

The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century due to indigenous/invading forces.
Anticlimactic and drawn out over decades.
Edward Gibbon's perspective:
- The decline of Rome was the "natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness."
- We should be surprised that it subsisted for so long rather than questioning why it was destroyed.
How did Rome survive the Republic-to-Empire transition?
Overcoming economic inequality, social unrest, and political turmoil.
Many emperors were egotistical, ambitious, devious, conniving, insane, or assassinated.
Challenges: economic, social, political, and constant warfare.