Last Prayer
Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology
Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Behavior: Observable actions or responses of an individual.
Mental Processes: Internal, subjective experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.
Structuralism: An early school of psychology that sought to understand the structure of the mind by breaking it down into its basic components through introspection.
Functionalism: A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function and help organisms adapt to their environments.
Introspection: A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings.
Scientific Method: A systematic process for collecting and analyzing data that involves observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and conclusion.
Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of evidence.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables.
Variable: Any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types.
Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured in an experiment; it is affected by changes in the independent variable.
Operational Definition: A precise definition of a variable or phenomenon that allows it to be measured and observed.
Replication: Repeating an experiment to confirm the results and ensure reliability.
Population: The entire group of individuals from which a sample is drawn for a study.
Sample: A subset of the population used in a study to represent the larger group.
Random Sampling: A method of selecting participants where every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.
Case Study: An in-depth examination of an individual or group, often used to study rare or unique situations.
Survey: A method of collecting data by asking people questions about their thoughts, behaviors, or opinions.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention or manipulation.
Laboratory Observation: Observing subjects in a controlled environment, often with equipment designed to study behavior.
Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables; does not imply causation.
Correlation Coefficient: A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
Scatterplot: A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables.
Experimental Method: A research method that involves manipulating one variable (independent variable) to observe its effect on another (dependent variable).
Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation, used for comparison.
Experimental Group: The group that receives the treatment or manipulation in an experiment.
Placebo Effect: When participants experience a perceived improvement in condition due to believing they are receiving treatment, even when they are not.
Double-Blind Procedure: An experimental design where both the participants and researchers are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize biases.
Confounding Variables: Uncontrolled variables that can affect the outcome of an experiment and lead to incorrect conclusions.
Statistical Significance: The likelihood that a result or relationship is not due to chance.
Inferential Statistics: Statistical methods used to make inferences or draw conclusions about a population based on sample data.
Descriptive Statistics: Statistical methods used to organize and summarize data, such as mean, median, and mode.
Mean: The average of a data set, calculated by adding all values and dividing by the number of values.
Median: The middle value in a data set when ordered from least to greatest.
Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a data set.
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.
Standard Deviation: A measure of how much scores in a data set vary from the mean.
Normal Curve: A bell-shaped curve representing a normal distribution of data, where most values cluster around the mean.
Ethics in Psychology: Guidelines for conducting research in a morally responsible way, ensuring participant safety and integrity.
Informed Consent: The process of informing participants about the nature of the study and obtaining their agreement to participate.
Debriefing: The process of informing participants about the purpose of the study after it has concluded, especially if deception was used.
Deception: A practice in some psychological experiments where participants are misled about the true nature of the study.
Animal Research Ethics: Ethical guidelines for the treatment of animals in research, ensuring humane conditions.
Psychological Perspectives: Various approaches used to understand and study behavior, such as biological, cognitive, and social perspectives.
Biological Perspective: The approach to psychology that examines how brain activity and biological processes influence behavior.
Cognitive Perspective: The approach that focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
Behavioral Perspective: The approach that focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental factors that influence them.
Humanistic Perspective: The approach that emphasizes individual growth, self-actualization, and personal experience.
Psychodynamic Perspective: The approach that focuses on unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior.
Sociocultural Perspective: The approach that examines how culture, social norms, and relationships influence behavior.
Evolutionary Perspective: The approach that examines how natural selection and evolutionary processes shape behavior.
Neuroscience: The scientific study of the brain, nervous system, and their impact on behavior.
Neuropsychology: The branch of psychology that studies the relationship between the brain and behavior.
Biopsychology: The field that explores how biological processes, such as brain functioning and hormones, influence psychological functions and behavior.
Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior
Neuron: A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical signals throughout the body.
Dendrites: Branch-like structures of neurons that receive information from other neurons.
Axon: The long, thin part of the neuron that transmits electrical signals from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.
Myelin Sheath: A fatty layer that encases the axon to speed up neural transmission.
Node of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that help facilitate rapid conduction of nerve impulses.
Axon Terminal: The end part of the axon that contains neurotransmitters and communicates with other neurons or muscles.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
Synapse: The gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to carry signals.
Receptor Sites: Specialized areas on neurons or other cells where neurotransmitters bind to trigger a response.
Action Potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon to transmit information within the neuron.
Resting Potential: The state of a neuron when it is not transmitting a signal, with a negative charge inside relative to outside.
Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.
All-or-Nothing Principle: The concept that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all once the threshold is reached.
Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal.
Excitatory Signals: Signals that increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire.
Inhibitory Signals: Signals that decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire.
Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord; it processes information and controls most bodily functions.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connect the CNS to the body.
Somatic Nervous System: The part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System: The part of the PNS that controls involuntary functions such as heart rate and digestion.
Sympathetic Nervous System: A division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the "fight or flight" response.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: A division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after a stress response, promoting rest.
Endocrine System: A system of glands that secrete hormones to regulate bodily processes.
Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulate bodily functions.
Pituitary Gland: The "master gland" that controls other endocrine glands and releases hormones that affect growth and reproduction.
Hypothalamus: A brain region that regulates the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, hunger, and thirst.
Thyroid Gland: Gland that regulates metabolism through the release of thyroid hormones.
Adrenal Glands: Glands that release hormones like adrenaline and cortisol in response to stress.
Pineal Gland: A gland in the brain that produces melatonin, regulating sleep patterns.
Gonads: The reproductive glands (ovaries and testes) that produce sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone.
Pancreas: A gland that produces insulin and regulates blood sugar levels.
Cerebellum: A part of the brain involved in motor control and coordination, balance, and motor learning.
Medulla: The part of the brainstem responsible for regulating vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.
Pons: A structure in the brainstem that controls sleep, respiration, and facial movements.
Reticular Formation: A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal, alertness, and attention.
Thalamus: A brain structure that acts as a relay station for sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus: The brain region that regulates basic bodily functions like hunger, thirst, temperature, and emotion.
Amygdala: A part of the limbic system that processes emotions such as fear and aggression.
Hippocampus: A brain structure important for memory formation and spatial navigation.
Corpus Callosum: A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the brain involved in higher-level thinking, reasoning, and perception.
Frontal Lobes: Brain regions responsible for reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and motor function.
Parietal Lobes: Brain regions responsible for sensory processing, including touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.
Occipital Lobes: Brain regions that process visual information.
Temporal Lobes: Brain regions involved in processing auditory information and memory.
Motor Cortex: A part of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary muscle movements.
Sensory Cortex: A part of the parietal lobe that processes sensory input from the body.
Broca’s Area: A region in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production.
Wernicke’s Area: A region in the temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension.
Split Brain: A condition resulting from the severing of the corpus callosum, affecting communication between the brain's hemispheres.
Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections in response to experience or injury.
Lesions: Damage or injury to a part of the brain, often studied in animals or through case studies in humans.
CT Scan (CAT Scan): A medical imaging technique used to create detailed images of the body, including the brain.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A medical imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to create detailed images of the brain's structure.
fMRI (Functional MRI): A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): A brain imaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to observe metabolic activity in the brain.
EEG (Electroencephalogram): A method of measuring brain electrical activity using electrodes attached to the scalp.
Genetics: The study of heredity and the variation of inherited traits.
Genome: The complete set of genetic material in an organism's DNA.
Genes: Segments of DNA that code for proteins and influence an organism's traits.
Chromosomes: Thread-like structures made of DNA that carry genetic information.
DNA: A molecule that carries genetic information in all living organisms.
Gene Expression: The process by which genetic instructions are used to produce proteins that carry out cellular functions.
Epigenetics: The study of changes in gene expression that are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence.
Twin Studies: Research studies that compare identical and fraternal twins to examine the influence of genetics and environment.
Adoption Studies: Studies that compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive families to determine the influence of genetics and environment.
Evolutionary Psychology: The study of how evolutionary principles, such as natural selection, shape human behavior and mental processes.
Natural Selection: The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on to succeeding generations.
Unit 3: Sensation and Perception
Sensation: The process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment and converting them into neural signals.
Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful.
Transduction: The conversion of physical energy (e.g., light, sound) into neural signals that the brain can interpret.
Absolute Threshold: The minimum level of stimulus intensity needed for detection 50% of the time.
Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference): The smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected.
Weber’s Law: A principle stating that the difference threshold is proportional to the initial stimulus intensity.
Signal Detection Theory: A theory that explains how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise.
Sensory Adaptation: The decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.
Bottom-Up Processing: Processing sensory information as it is received, starting with basic details and building to a complete perception.
Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.
Selective Attention: The process of focusing attention on certain stimuli while ignoring others.
Cocktail Party Effect: The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment.
Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice visible objects because attention is directed elsewhere.
Change Blindness: Failing to notice large changes in the environment.
Sensory Interaction: The interaction between different senses, such as how taste and smell work together to create flavor.
Psychophysics: The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and their psychological experience.
Vision: The sense responsible for detecting light and interpreting visual information.
Light Waves: The electromagnetic waves that carry light.
Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs of a wave; determines color in vision.
Amplitude: The height of a light wave; determines brightness in vision.
Hue: The color of light determined by its wavelength.
Brightness: The intensity of light, determined by the amplitude of the light wave.
Rods: Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light.
Cones: Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and sharp detail.
Retina: The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains rods and cones.
Fovea: The central part of the retina responsible for sharp, detailed vision.
Optic Nerve: The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
Blind Spot: The area in the visual field where the optic nerve exits the retina, with no photoreceptor cells.
Visual Cortex: The area of the brain involved in processing visual information.
Feature Detectors: Neurons that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as lines or angles.
Color Vision: The ability to perceive differences in wavelength of light, leading to the perception of color.
Trichromatic Theory: A theory of color vision that suggests there are three types of color receptors (red, green, blue).
Opponent-Process Theory: A theory of color vision that suggests color perception is controlled by opposing pairs of colors (red-green, blue-yellow).
Audition: The sense of hearing.
Sound Waves: Vibrations in the air that are perceived as sound.
Frequency: The number of waves per second; determines the pitch of sound.
Amplitude: The height of sound waves; determines the loudness of sound.
Timbre: The quality or texture of a sound that allows us to distinguish different sounds.
Outer Ear: The part of the ear that collects sound waves and funnels them into the ear canal.
Middle Ear: The part of the ear containing the eardrum and ossicles (tiny bones) that amplify sound.
Inner Ear: The part of the ear that contains the cochlea, responsible for converting sound vibrations into neural signals.
Cochlea: A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into electrical signals.
Hair Cells: Sensory cells in the cochlea that respond to sound vibrations and send electrical signals to the brain.
Auditory Nerve: The nerve that transmits auditory information from the ear to the brain.
Place Theory: A theory of hearing that suggests different parts of the cochlea are responsible for detecting different frequencies.
Frequency Theory: A theory of hearing that suggests the rate at which hair cells fire corresponds to the frequency of sound.
Conduction Hearing Loss: Hearing loss caused by damage to the outer or middle ear structures.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve.
Vestibular Sense: The sense that detects balance and spatial orientation, related to the inner ear.
Kinesthetic Sense: The sense that detects the position and movement of body parts.
Gate-Control Theory: A theory that suggests pain is controlled by a "gate" in the spinal cord that can either block or allow pain signals to pass through to the brain.
Unit 4: States of Consciousness
Consciousness: Awareness of one's thoughts, feelings, and surroundings.
Awake: The state of being conscious and alert to one's surroundings.
Sleep: A state of reduced consciousness where the body and mind rest.
Circadian Rhythm: The biological processes that follow a 24-hour cycle, including sleep-wake patterns.
REM Sleep: A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and increased brain activity.
NREM Sleep: Non-REM sleep, which includes stages 1-4 and is characterized by deeper, more restful sleep.
Sleep Cycle: The progression through the stages of sleep, which repeats multiple times during the night.
Sleep Stages: The five stages of sleep, including NREM stages (1-4) and REM sleep.
Alpha Waves: Brain waves that occur when relaxed but awake, typically associated with calm and meditative states.
Delta Waves: Brain waves that occur during deep sleep stages (3 and 4).
Sleep Disorders: Conditions that disrupt sleep patterns, including insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea.
Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by sudden and uncontrollable sleep attacks.
Sleep Apnea: A disorder in which breathing stops temporarily during sleep, leading to frequent awakenings.
Dreams: Mental experiences during sleep, often involving vivid images, emotions, and narratives.
Manifest Content: The actual content or storyline of a dream.
Latent Content: The symbolic meaning or underlying thoughts behind a dream.
Dream Theory: Theories about the purpose and meaning of dreams, including Freud's theory of wish fulfillment and the activation-synthesis theory.
Hypnosis: A state of heightened suggestibility, often used for therapeutic purposes.
Hypnotic Induction: The process of guiding a person into a hypnotic state.
Posthypnotic Suggestion: A suggestion made during hypnosis that influences behavior after the person emerges from the hypnotic state.
Dissociation: A mental process of detaching from one's surroundings, emotions, or thoughts, often occurring during hypnosis or traumatic events.
Psychoactive Drugs: Substances that alter perception, mood, or consciousness.
Tolerance: The need for increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the desired effect due to repeated use.
Dependence: A state in which the body requires a drug to function normally, leading to withdrawal symptoms when the drug is not used.
Addiction: A compulsive need to use a substance despite negative consequences.
Withdrawal: The physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person stops using a substance they are dependent on.
Depressants: Substances that reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions, such as alcohol and barbiturates.
Stimulants: Substances that increase neural activity and bodily functions, such as caffeine and cocaine.
Hallucinogens: Substances that alter perception, thought, and mood, such as LSD and marijuana.
Alcohol: A depressant that affects mood, behavior, and cognition.
Caffeine: A stimulant that increases alertness and energy.
Nicotine: A stimulant found in tobacco products, which increases heart rate and induces feelings of relaxation and alertness.
Cocaine: A powerful stimulant that increases dopamine activity and leads to feelings of euphoria and energy.
LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide): A hallucinogen that alters perception, mood, and thought.
Marijuana: A psychoactive drug that can have depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects.
Unit 5: Learning
Learning: The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
Classical Conditioning: A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): A natural, automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Acquisition: The initial stage of learning, where the conditioned response is first elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.
Generalization: The tendency for a conditioned response to be triggered by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not trigger the conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences (reinforcers or punishments).
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
Punishment: Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal through successive approximations.
Primary Reinforcer: A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need, such as food or water.
Secondary Reinforcer: A reinforcer that acquires its reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers, such as money or praise.
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A reinforcement schedule that reinforces behavior after a set number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: A reinforcement schedule that reinforces behavior after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: A reinforcement schedule that reinforces behavior after a set amount of time has passed.
Variable-Interval Schedule: A reinforcement schedule that reinforces behavior after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.
Cognitive Map: A mental representation of the layout of the environment.
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated in behavior.
Insight: A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Observational Learning: Learning by observing and imitating others’ behaviors.
Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of others.
Cognitive Learning: Learning that involves mental processes such as attention, memory, and problem-solving, beyond just observable behaviors.
Unit 6: Memory: The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
Encoding: The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.
Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval: The process of getting information out of memory storage.
Sensory Memory: The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-Term Memory (STM): The active, limited capacity system that holds information for a brief period (about 20 seconds).
Long-Term Memory (LTM): The relatively permanent storage of information with a potentially limitless capacity.
Working Memory: An active system that processes and temporarily stores information, including short-term memory and other cognitive processes.
Explicit Memory: Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit Memory: Retention of information without conscious awareness, often related to skills or conditioned responses.
Episodic Memory: A type of explicit memory that involves the recall of specific personal experiences and events.
Semantic Memory: A type of explicit memory that involves facts and general knowledge.
Procedural Memory: A type of implicit memory that involves skills and procedures, such as riding a bike.
Encoding Specificity Principle: The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will aid in the recall of that memory.
Context-Dependent Memory: The tendency to recall information better when in the same context or environment in which it was originally learned.
State-Dependent Memory: The tendency to recall information better when in the same state of consciousness (e.g., sober or intoxicated) as when it was encoded.
Serial Position Effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
Primacy Effect: The tendency to remember items presented at the beginning of a list.
Recency Effect: The tendency to remember items presented at the end of a list.
Chunking: The process of organizing information into manageable units or chunks to enhance memory.
Mnemonics: Memory aids or strategies that help enhance recall, such as acronyms or visual imagery.
Shallow Processing: A superficial level of processing, focusing on basic features, like word structure or appearance.
Deep Processing: A more meaningful level of processing that involves encoding the meaning of the information.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A process where synaptic connections are strengthened through repeated activation, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Amnesia: The loss of memory, which can be either retrograde (loss of past memories) or anterograde (inability to form new memories).
Hippocampus: The brain structure primarily involved in forming new memories.
Retroactive Interference: The tendency for newer information to interfere with the retrieval of older information.
Proactive Interference: The tendency for older information to interfere with the learning of new information.
Misattribution: When a memory is incorrectly attributed to the wrong source.
Suggestibility: The tendency for memories to be influenced by misleading information.
Bias: The distortion of memories due to personal beliefs, attitudes, or experiences.
Persistence: The continual recall of unwanted memories, often related to trauma or anxiety.
False Memory: A memory that feels real but is entirely fabricated or distorted.
Unit 7: Cognition
Cognition: The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge.
Concept: A mental category that groups similar objects, events, or ideas.
Prototype: A mental image or best example of a category.
Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem.
Heuristic: A simple, efficient strategy for solving problems, although it doesn’t guarantee a solution.
Insight: A sudden realization or understanding of the solution to a problem.
Creativity: The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Divergent Thinking: Thinking that explores multiple possible solutions to a problem.
Convergent Thinking: Thinking that focuses on finding a single, best solution to a problem.
Problem Solving: The cognitive process of finding a solution to a problem.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions and ignore contradictory evidence.
Fixation: The inability to view a problem from a new perspective, hindering problem-solving.
Mental Set: The tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on previous experiences.
Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their typical functions, limiting creativity.
Representativeness Heuristic: A mental shortcut that involves judging the likelihood of things based on how well they seem to represent particular prototypes.
Availability Heuristic: A mental shortcut that involves estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
Overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs or judgments.
Framing Effect: The way a problem or question is posed can influence people’s decisions and judgments.
Belief Perseverance: The tendency to maintain one's beliefs even in the face of evidence that contradicts them.
Language: A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or gestures to convey meaning.
Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound in a language.
Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning in a language.
Grammar: The set of rules governing the structure of sentences in a language.
Semantics: The study of meaning in language.
Syntax: The rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences.
Babbling Stage: The early stage of language development when infants produce various sounds, not yet specific to their language.
One-Word Stage: The stage in language development when children begin to use one word to convey meaning.
Two-Word Stage: The stage when children begin to combine two words into simple sentences.
Telegraphic Speech: Early speech used by children in which words are combined into short, grammatically correct phrases.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: The idea that language can influence the way we think.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD): A theoretical mechanism proposed by Noam Chomsky that explains the ease with which children learn language.
Critical Period: A period in early development when exposure to language is necessary for proper language development.
Whorf’s Linguistic Determinism: The hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
Cognitive Dissonance: The mental discomfort or tension that arises when one’s beliefs or behaviors are inconsistent, leading to changes in attitude or behavior to reduce discomfort.
Unit 8: Motivation and Emotion
Motivation: The process that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-directed behavior.
Instinct: A complex, unlearned behavior that is fixed and occurs throughout a species.
Drive: A psychological state that motivates an organism to engage in goal-directed behavior to reduce a need.
Drive-Reduction Theory: A theory of motivation that suggests that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce drives, such as hunger or thirst.
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a balanced or constant internal state.
Incentive: A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
Arousal Theory: The theory that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, not just to reduce drives.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: The principle that performance increases with arousal to a certain point, after which performance decreases.
Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s theory of motivation, which suggests that we have a series of needs (physiological, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization) that must be met in order.
Self-Actualization: The realization of one’s potential and personal growth.
Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal rewards, such as personal satisfaction or enjoyment.
Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards, such as money or recognition.
Overjustification Effect: The tendency for intrinsic motivation to decrease when an external reward is introduced for
Overjustification Effect : The tendency for intrinsic motivation to decrease when an external reward is introduced for an activity that was already intrinsically motivating.
Need for Achievement : The desire to excel, succeed, and accomplish challenging tasks.
Need for Affiliation : The desire to establish and maintain social relationships with others.
Need for Power : The desire to influence or control others.
Emotion : A response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.
James-Lange Theory : The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus.
Cannon-Bard Theory : The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory : The theory that to experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal.
Lazarus’s Appraisal Theory : A theory of emotion stating that our emotional experience depends on our interpretation or appraisal of the situation we are in.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis : The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.
Stress : The process by which we perceive and respond to events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) : Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
Tend-and-Befriend Response : Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).
Coping : Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.
Problem-Focused Coping : Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
Emotion-Focused Coping : Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.
Unit 9: Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology : The scientific study of how people change physically, cognitively, and socially over the lifespan.
Nature vs. Nurture : The debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to development.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity : The debate over whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a series of distinct stages.
Stability vs. Change : The debate over whether personality traits and behaviors remain stable over time or change as people age.
Cross-Sectional Study : A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another at one point in time.
Longitudinal Study : A study in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
Cohort Effect : The effect that occurs when people of different ages also differ because of the different time periods and conditions they have lived through.
Prenatal Development : The period of development from conception to birth.
Zygote : The fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
Embryo : The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.
Fetus : The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
Teratogens : Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) : Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.
Reflexes : Automatic responses to stimuli, present at birth, that aid in survival.
Rooting Reflex : A baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple.
Sucking Reflex : An infant reflex in which the infant starts sucking when his or her lips are touched.
Grasping Reflex : An infant’s clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand.
Moro Reflex : An infant’s response to a sudden loss of support, characterized by spreading out the arms, unspreading the fingers, and crying.
Babinski Reflex : An infant’s response to stroking the sole of the foot, characterized by the toes spreading apart and the foot turning inward.
Habituation : Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Maturation : Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
Motor Development : The progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities.
Cognitive Development : The development of thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities.
Schema : A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Assimilation : Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.
Accommodation : Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Sensorimotor Stage : Piaget’s stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
Object Permanence : The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
Preoperational Stage : Piaget’s stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
Egocentrism : In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.
Theory of Mind : People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
Conservation : The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
Concrete Operational Stage : Piaget’s stage (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
Formal Operational Stage : Piaget’s stage (beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
Attachment : An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
Stranger Anxiety : The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
Secure Attachment : In Ainsworth’s studies, children who showed some distress when their caregiver left but were able to compose themselves knowing that their caregiver would return.
Insecure Attachment : In Ainsworth’s studies, children who demonstrated either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness.
Temperament : A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
Parenting Styles : The manner in which parents raise their children, including the levels of warmth and control they exhibit.
Authoritarian Parenting : Parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness. Parents are strict, expect obedience, and provide little warmth or explanation.
Permissive Parenting : Parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness. Parents are lenient, avoid confrontation, and provide lots of warmth but little discipline.
Authoritative Parenting : Parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness. Parents set clear expectations, enforce rules consistently, and provide warmth, support, and explanation.
Uninvolved Parenting : Parenting style characterized by low demands and low responsiveness. Parents are neglectful, uninvolved, and provide little guidance or support.
Gender Identity : Our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two.
Gender Roles : A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.
Social Learning Theory : The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
Gender Schema Theory : The theory that children learn about gender roles through their culture and then act accordingly.
Adolescence : The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
Puberty : The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
Primary Sex Characteristics : The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
Secondary Sex Characteristics : Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development : A theory that outlines three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
Preconventional Morality : Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which actions are judged based on their consequences. Focus is on self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards.
Conventional Morality : Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which actions are judged based on social rules and expectations. Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order.
Postconventional Morality : Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which actions are judged based on universal ethical principles. Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development : A theory that outlines eight stages of psychosocial development, each marked by a specific crisis or challenge.
Trust vs. Mistrust : Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development (infancy), during which infants learn to trust their caregivers and the world around them.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt : Erikson’s second stage of psychosocial development (toddlerhood), during which children develop a sense of independence and autonomy.
Initiative vs. Guilt : Erikson’s third stage of psychosocial development (preschool years), during which children learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans.
Industry vs. Inferiority : Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development (elementary school years), during which children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks.
Identity vs. Role Confusion : Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial development (adolescence), during which adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation : Erikson’s sixth stage of psychosocial development (young adulthood), during which young adults struggle to form close relationships and gain the capacity for intimate love.
Generativity vs. Stagnation : Erikson’s seventh stage of psychosocial development (middle adulthood), during which people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Integrity vs. Despair : Erikson’s eighth and final stage of psychosocial development (late adulthood), during which people reflect on their lives and either feel a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.
Social Clock : The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Emerging Adulthood : A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.
Menopause : The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.
Fluid Intelligence : Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
Crystallized Intelligence : Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
Alzheimer’s Disease : A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning.
Neurocognitive Disorders : Acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related