Psychology Vocabulary Flashcards

Chapter 1: What is Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior (observable actions) and mental processes (thoughts, emotions).

• It integrates multiple perspectives to understand human and animal behavior.

Definition & Goals

• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Four Primary Goals:

  • Description (What is happening?)

  • Explanation (Why is it happening?)

  • Prediction (When will it happen again?)

  • Control (How can it be changed?)

Psychology vs. Psychiatry

• Psychologists: Hold a PhD or PsyD; conduct research/therapy (cannot prescribe medication in most states).

• Psychiatrists: Medical doctors (MDs) who can prescribe drugs and treat biological disorders.

Major Perspectives in Psychology

• Psychology is approached through multiple lenses, each emphasizing different causes of behavior:

  • Biological: Brain structures, neurotransmitters, genetics.

    • Key Figures: James Olds, Roger Sperry

    • Example: "Low serotonin causes depression."

  • Behavioral: Observable behavior; learning via rewards/punishments.

    • Key Figures: John Watson, B.F. Skinner

    • Example: "A child learns to fear dogs after being bitten."

  • Cognitive: Thoughts, memory, problem-solving.

    • Key Figures: Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky

    • Example: "Negative thoughts perpetuate anxiety."

  • Humanistic: Free will, self-actualization, personal growth.

    • Key Figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

    • Example: "Therapy helps people reach their potential."

  • Psychodynamic: Unconscious drives, childhood experiences.

    • Key Figures: Sigmund Freud

    • Example: "Repressed memories cause phobias."

  • Sociocultural: Culture, social norms, family influence.

    • Key Figures: Lev Vygotsky

    • Example: "Collectivist cultures value group harmony."

  • Evolutionary: Adaptive behaviors shaped by natural selection.

    • Key Figures: David Buss

    • Example: "Jealousy evolved to protect relationships."

Subfields of Psychology

• Various subfields with specific focuses and career paths:

  • Clinical: Diagnose/treat mental disorders (e.g., therapist in private practice).

  • Cognitive: Study memory, decision-making, AI (e.g., UX researcher at Google).

  • Developmental: Lifespan changes (childhood → aging) (e.g., child welfare consultant).

  • Social: Group behavior, prejudice, attraction (e.g., marketing analyst).

  • Industrial-Organizational (I/O): Workplace behavior, productivity (e.g., HR manager).

  • Forensic: Psychology in legal systems (e.g., jury decisions) (e.g., criminal profiler).

The Scientific Method in Psychology

• Empirical Approach: Relying on evidence from experiments/observations, not intuition.

• Critical Thinking: Questioning assumptions, evaluating evidence, avoiding biases (e.g., confirmation bias).

Historical Foundations

• Wilhelm Wundt (1879): Founded first psychology lab in Germany (studied consciousness via introspection).

• William James: Wrote Principles of Psychology; focused on functionalism (how behavior helps adaptation).

• Sigmund Freud: Emphasized the unconscious mind and psychoanalysis.

• Behaviorism (1920s): John Watson/B.F. Skinner rejected introspection; focused on observable behavior.

• Cognitive Revolution (1950s): Shifted focus back to mental processes (memory, language).

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• Nature: Behavior is influenced by genes, biology.

• Nurture: Behavior is shaped by environment, experience.

• Modern View: Interaction of both (e.g., epigenetics shows environment can turn genes on/off).

Ethical Guidelines

• Belmont Report (1979): Established ethical principles for research:

  • Respect for Persons (informed consent).

  • Beneficence (minimize harm).

  • Justice (fair distribution of research benefits/risks).

Key Terms & Concepts

• Dualism: Mind and body are separate (Descartes).

• Structuralism: Analyzes consciousness into basic elements (Wundt).

• Functionalism: Studies how mental processes aid adaptation (James).

• Operant Conditioning: Learning via rewards/punishments (Skinner).

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How might a biological psychologist vs. a behaviorist explain depression?

2. Why is the nature-nurture debate central to psychology?

3. What ethical issues arise in Milgram’s obedience study or Zimbardo’s prison experiment?

Real-World Applications

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Combines cognitive and behavioral approaches to treat anxiety.

• Eyewitness Testimony: Research on memory errors has reformed legal procedures.

Chapter 2: Scientific Thinking and Research

• Psychologists use the scientific method to test hypotheses, minimize bias, and draw valid conclusions about behavior and mental processes.

The Scientific Method

• Steps in Psychological Research:

  1. Observe a Phenomenon (e.g., "Does sleep deprivation affect memory?").

  2. Form a Hypothesis (testable prediction: "People with <6 hours of sleep will recall 20% fewer words.").

  3. Design a Study (choose experimental/correlational methods).

  4. Collect Data (via experiments, surveys, observations).

  5. Analyze Results (statistics, significance testing).

  6. Draw Conclusions & Replicate (ensure findings aren’t due to chance).

Research Designs

• Descriptive Research: Observe and record behavior without interference.

  • Naturalistic Observation:

    • Watching behavior in natural settings (e.g., children’s play in a park).

    • Pros: High ecological validity. Cons: No control over variables.

  • Case Studies:

    • In-depth analysis of an individual/group (e.g., Phineas Gage’s frontal lobe damage).

    • Pros: Rich detail. Cons: Not generalizable.

  • Surveys/Questionnaires:

    • Collect self-reported data from large groups (e.g., "How stressed are you?").

    • Pros: Efficient. Cons: Social desirability bias (people lie to look good).

• Correlational Research: Measure the relationship between two variables (no causation).

  • Correlation Coefficient (-1.0 to +1.0):

    • Positive correlation (\uparrow \uparrow): Both variables increase (e.g., study time \uparrow, grades \uparrow).

    • Negative correlation (\uparrow \downarrow): One increases, the other decreases (e.g., stress \uparrow, sleep quality \downarrow).

    • Zero correlation: No relationship (e.g., shoe size and IQ).

  • Limitations:

    • Third-variable problem: Hidden factor explains the link (e.g., ice cream sales \uparrow & drownings \uparrow → heat causes both).

• Experimental Research: Establish cause-and-effect by manipulating variables.

  • Key Components:

    • Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated factor (e.g., sleep duration).

    • Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome (e.g., memory test score).

    • Control Group: No IV manipulation (baseline for comparison).

    • Experimental Group: Receives IV manipulation.

  • Random Assignment: Participants randomly assigned to groups to avoid bias.

  • Confounding Variables: Extraneous factors that could skew results (e.g., caffeine intake in a sleep study).

Experimental Controls & Bias

• Placebo Effect: Improvement due to expectations (e.g., sugar pill reduces pain).

  • Controlled via double-blind procedure (neither participants nor researchers know who gets treatment).

• Experimenter Bias: Researcher’s expectations influence results.

  • Mitigated by standardized instructions and blind designs.

Data Analysis & Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics

  • Measures of Central Tendency:

    • Mean: Average (sensitive to outliers).

    • Median: Middle value (resistant to outliers).

    • Mode: Most frequent value.

  • Measures of Variability:

    • Range: Difference between highest/lowest scores.

    • Standard Deviation (SD): Average distance from the mean (higher SD = more spread).

• Inferential Statistics

  • p-value: Probability results are due to chance.

    • p < .05 = statistically significant (only 5% chance findings are random).

  • Statistical Significance ≠ Practical Importance: Large samples can make tiny differences "significant."

Ethical Guidelines in Research

• Institutional Review Board (IRB): Approves studies to protect participants.

• Key Principles:

  • Informed Consent: Participants must understand risks/benefits.

  • Confidentiality: Data must be anonymous.

  • Debriefing: Explain true purpose after the study (especially if deception was used).

• Animal Research: Must minimize pain/distress; justify scientific value.

Real-World Applications

• Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional Studies:

  • Longitudinal: Track same group over years (e.g., aging effects on memory).

  • Cross-Sectional: Compare different age groups at one time (faster but less precise).

• Meta-Analysis: Combines results from multiple studies for stronger conclusions.

Key Terms & Concepts

• Hypothesis: Testable prediction about variables.

• Operational Definition: Clearly defining variables (e.g., "stress = cortisol levels").

• Validity: Measures what it claims (e.g., a IQ test that actually measures intelligence).

• Reliability: Consistency (e.g., same results on retest).

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Why can’t correlation prove causation?

2. How does random assignment reduce bias?

3. What’s the difference between a placebo effect and a confounding variable?

Case Study Example

• Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study:

  • IV: Authority figure’s proximity.

  • DV: Participant’s willingness to administer "shocks."

  • Ethical Issues: Psychological distress, lack of full consent (led to stricter IRB rules).

Chapter 3: The Biology of Behavior

1. The Nervous System: Structure and Function

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain:

  • Divided into hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

  • Responsible for cognition, emotion, and complex behaviors.

• Spinal Cord:

  • Transmits sensory/motor signals between brain and body.

  • Reflex arcs (e.g., knee-jerk reflex) bypass the brain for quick responses.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Somatic Nervous System:

  • Controls voluntary skeletal muscles (e.g., waving your hand).

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

  • Sympathetic Nervous System:

    • Activates during stress (e.g., increased heart rate, dilated pupils).

    • Releases adrenaline (epinephrine) from adrenal glands.

  • Parasympathetic Nervous System:

    • Calms the body (e.g., slows heart rate, stimulates digestion).

2. Neurons: Structure, Function, and Communication

Neuron Anatomy

• Dendrites: Receive chemical signals from other neurons.

• Soma (Cell Body): Integrates incoming signals; contains nucleus.

• Axon: Transmits electrical impulses (action potentials).

• Myelin Sheath: Fatty insulation that speeds up signal transmission (damaged in multiple sclerosis).

• Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters into the synapse (gap between neurons).

Action Potential (Neural Firing)

1. Resting Potential: Neuron is polarized (-70mV charge inside).

2. Depolarization: Sodium (Na+) ions rush in → charge becomes positive.

3. Threshold: If stimulation is strong enough, an all-or-none action potential fires.

4. Repolarization: Potassium (K+) ions exit, restoring negative charge.

5. Refractory Period: Brief recovery time before neuron can fire again.

Synaptic Transmission (Chemical Signaling)

1. Neurotransmitters (NTs) are released into the synapse.

2. NTs bind to receptor sites on the next neuron.

3. Effects can be:

   • Excitatory (increase firing likelihood, e.g., glutamate).

   • Inhibitory (decrease firing likelihood, e.g., GABA).

4. Reuptake: Excess NTs are reabsorbed by the sending neuron (blocked by SSRIs like Prozac).

Major Neurotransmitters & Disorders

• Dopamine: Reward, movement, motivation.

  • Related Disorders: Parkinson’s (low), Schizophrenia (high).

• Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite.

  • Related Disorders: Depression (low).

• Acetylcholine: Memory, muscle contraction.

  • Related Disorders: Alzheimer’s (low).

• GABA: Calms the brain (primary inhibitory NT).

  • Related Disorders: Anxiety (low).

• Endorphins: Natural painkillers, pleasure.

  • Related Disorders: Chronic pain (low).

3. The Brain: Structures and Functions

Hindbrain (Basic Survival)

• Medulla Oblongata: Controls breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure.

• Pons: Regulates sleep, arousal, facial expressions.

• Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movement, balance (affected by alcohol).

Midbrain (Sensorimotor Relay)

• Reticular Formation: Filters sensory input; maintains alertness/consciousness (damage → coma).

Forebrain (Higher-Order Functions)

• Thalamus: Sensory "switchboard" (except smell).

• Hypothalamus:

  • Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behavior.

  • Controls the pituitary gland (master endocrine gland).

• Limbic System (Emotion & Memory):

  • Amygdala: Fear, aggression (damage → no fear response).

  • Hippocampus: Forms new memories (damage → anterograde amnesia).

• Basal Ganglia: Controls voluntary movement (affected in Parkinson’s).

Cerebral Cortex (Higher Cognition)

• Frontal Lobe:

  • Prefrontal Cortex: Decision-making, impulse control (develops until age 25).

  • Motor Cortex: Voluntary movement (homunculus shows body part sensitivity).

• Parietal Lobe:

  • Somatosensory Cortex: Processes touch/pain (homunculus map).

• Temporal Lobe:

  • Auditory Cortex: Processes sound.

  • Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension (damage → fluent but nonsensical speech).

• Occipital Lobe:

  • Visual Cortex: Processes sight (damage → cortical blindness).

Hemispheric Lateralization

• Left Hemisphere:

  • Language (Broca’s Area: speech production; Wernicke’s Area: comprehension).

  • Logical reasoning, math.

• Right Hemisphere:

  • Spatial skills, facial recognition, creativity.

• Split-Brain Studies (Sperry & Gazzaniga):

  • Severing the corpus callosum reveals hemispheric specialization (e.g., right hand can’t name objects seen by left visual field).

4. The Endocrine System

• Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters:

  • Hormones are slower, travel via bloodstream.

• Key Glands & Hormones:

  • Pituitary: Releases growth hormone, oxytocin (bonding), vasopressin (water balance).

  • Adrenals: Release cortisol (stress), adrenaline (fight-or-flight).

  • Thyroid: Regulates metabolism (hypothyroidism → fatigue).

5. Neuroplasticity & Brain Repair

• Neurogenesis: New neuron growth (occurs in hippocampus).

• Plasticity Examples:

  • Phantom Limb Pain: Brain reorganizes after amputation.

  • London Taxi Drivers: Larger hippocampi due to spatial memory use.

Real-World Applications

• SSRIs (e.g., Prozac): Block serotonin reuptake to treat depression.

• Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Treats Parkinson’s by stimulating basal ganglia.

• Concussions: Damage to frontal lobes → impaired judgment/impulse control.

Key Studies & Terms to Know

• Phineas Gage: Frontal lobe damage → personality change.

• Broca’s vs. Wernicke’s Aphasia.

• Agonist vs. Antagonist Drugs (e.g., morphine mimics endorphins [agonist]; caffeine blocks adenosine [antagonist])

Chapter 4: Sensing and Perceiving our World

Key Distinction:

• Sensation: Detection of physical stimuli by sensory receptors.

• Perception: Interpretation and organization of sensory input.

1. Basic Principles of Sensation

• Transduction: Conversion of physical energy (e.g., light, sound) into neural signals.

• Thresholds:

  • Absolute threshold: Minimum stimulus intensity needed to detect it 50% of the time (e.g., a candle flame 30 miles away on a dark night).

  • Difference threshold (Just Noticeable Difference - JND): Smallest change in stimulus that can be detected (Weber’s Law: JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus).

• Signal Detection Theory: Sensitivity to stimuli depends on psychological factors (e.g., motivation, fatigue).

2. Sensory Adaptation

• Reduced sensitivity to constant stimuli (e.g., not noticing a faint background noise after a while).

3. Vision (The Visual System)

• Light: Enters the eye as waves (wavelength → color; amplitude → brightness).

• Eye Structures:

  • Cornea/Pupil/Lens: Focus light onto the retina.

  • Retina: Contains rods (low-light, peripheral vision) and cones (color, detail).

  • Optic nerve: Carries visual info to the brain (thalamus → occipital lobe).

• Color Vision Theories:

  • Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz): Three cone types (red, green, blue).

  • Opponent-Process Theory: Color pairs (red-green, blue-yellow) explain afterimages.

4. Hearing (Audition)

• Sound Waves: Frequency (pitch), amplitude (loudness).

• Ear Structures:

  • Outer ear (pinna): Collects sound.

  • Middle ear (eardrum, ossicles): Amplifies vibrations.

  • Inner ear (cochlea): Hair cells transduce vibrations into neural signals (auditory nerve → brain).

5. Other Senses

• Touch (Somatosensation): Pressure, temperature, pain.

  • Gate-control theory: Spinal cord "gates" regulate pain signals.

• Taste (Gustation): Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (receptors on taste buds).

• Smell (Olfaction): Odor molecules bind to receptors → olfactory bulb → limbic system (links smell to memory/emotion).

6. Perception

• Bottom-up processing: Building perceptions from sensory input.

• Top-down processing: Using prior knowledge to interpret stimuli (e.g., reading messy handwriting).

• Gestalt Principles: Brain organizes sensory input into wholes:

  • Proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, figure-ground.

• Perceptual Constancies: Size, shape, and color remain stable despite changing stimuli (e.g., a door looks rectangular even when open at an angle).

7. Illusions & Culture

• Visual illusions (e.g., Müller-Lyer): Show how perception can be deceived.

• Cultural influences: Some perceptual habits are learned (e.g., interpreting depth cues).

Key Terms to Remember:

• Transduction, absolute threshold, rods/cones, trichromatic theory, cochlea, gate-control theory, Gestalt principles.

Chapter 5: Consciousness

Key Theme: Consciousness refers to our subjective awareness of ourselves and our
environment. This chapter explores different states of consciousness, including sleep,
dreams, hypnosis, and altered states from drugs.

1. What is Consciousness?

Definition & Levels

• Consciousness: Our moment-to-moment awareness of thoughts, feelings, and
  external stimuli.

• Levels of Awareness:

  • Focused Awareness: Fully alert (e.g., studying for an exam).

  • Drifting Consciousness: Daydreaming, mind-wandering.

  • Divided Consciousness: Multitasking (e.g., driving while talking).

  • Unconscious: Automatic processes (e.g., breathing, implicit memory).

Theories of Consciousness

• Global Workspace Model (Baars): Consciousness arises from widespread brain
  activity integrating information.

• Higher-Order Thought (HOT): Being aware that you are aware (metacognition).

2. Sleep & Dreams

Why Do We Sleep?

• Restoration Theory: Replenishes body and brain (e.g., muscle repair, memory
  consolidation).

• Circadian Rhythm Theory: Evolved to conserve energy at night.

Stages of Sleep (90-minute cycles)

• REM Rebound: Extra REM sleep after deprivation.

Dream Theories

• Freud’s Psychoanalytic: Dreams reveal unconscious desires (manifest vs.
  latent content).

• Activation-Synthesis (Hobson & McCarley): Random brainstem signals
  interpreted as dreams.

• Cognitive Theory: Dreams reflect daily concerns (problem-solving).

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia: Chronic difficulty falling/staying asleep.

• Narcolepsy: Sudden daytime sleep attacks.

• Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep.

• Night Terrors: Intense fear during N3 sleep (vs. nightmares in REM).

3. Altered States of Consciousness

Hypnosis

• Definition: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility.

• Theories:

  • Social-Cognitive: Role-playing to meet expectations.

  • Dissociation Theory (Hilgard): Split in consciousness ("hidden observer").

• Uses: Pain management, quitting smoking.

Meditation & Mindfulness

• Effects: Reduces stress, increases focus (changes in alpha/beta brain waves).

4. Psychoactive Drugs

Key Terms

• Tolerance: Needing more of a drug for the same effect.

• Dependence:

  • Psychological: Craving the drug.

  • Physical: Withdrawal symptoms (e.g., tremors).

Drug Categories

• Dopamine’s Role: Reinforces drug use by activating reward pathways.

5. Applications & Critical Thinking

• Why is sleep deprivation harmful?

  • Impairs memory, immune function, and emotional control.

• Can hypnosis retrieve "lost" memories?

  • No—often creates false memories.

Key Studies & Terms

• Manifest vs. Latent Content (Freud)

• Circadian Rhythms (Suprachiasmatic nucleus)

• Withdrawal vs. Tolerance

Chapter 6: Learning

Key Theme: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to
experience. This chapter explores three main types of learning: classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, and observational learning.

1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

Key Concepts

• Ivan Pavlov's Experiment:

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Bell (initially no response).

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Food (naturally triggers salivation).

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): Salivation (automatic response to food).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell (after pairing with food, triggers
    salivation).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation to the bell alone.

Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Initial learning of the stimulus-response link.

• Extinction: CR weakens when CS is presented without US.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Sudden reappearance of CR after extinction.

• Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS (e.g., fear of all dogs after a
  dog bite).

• Discrimination: Learning to distinguish between similar stimuli (e.g., only fearing
  aggressive dogs).

Real-World Examples

• Phobias: Fear response conditioned to a neutral stimulus (e.g., fear of heights after
  a fall).

• Advertising: Pairing a product (NS) with positive emotions (US) to create a
  favorable response (CR)

2. Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian Conditioning)

Key Concepts

• B.F. Skinner's Experiment:

  • Skinner Box: A rat presses a lever to receive food (reinforcement).

  • Law of Effect (Thorndike): Behaviors followed by rewards are repeated.

Types of Consequences

Schedules of Reinforcement

Applications

• Behavior Modification: Using reinforcement to shape behavior (e.g., token
  economies in classrooms).

• Parenting: Using consistent rewards/punishments to teach children.

3. Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)

Key Concepts

• Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment:

  • Children imitated aggressive behavior they observed in adults.

• Four Processes:

  • Attention: Must notice the behavior.

  • Retention: Must remember the behavior.

  • Reproduction: Must be able to perform the behavior.

  • Motivation: Must have a reason to imitate (e.g., rewards).

Real-World Examples

• Media Influence: Children mimicking violent TV characters.

• Workplace Training: Learning skills by watching colleagues.

4. Cognitive Factors in Learning

• Latent Learning (Tolman): Learning occurs without immediate reinforcement
  (e.g., rats exploring mazes).

• Insight Learning (Köhler): Sudden problem-solving (e.g., chimpanzee stacking
  boxes to reach bananas).

5. Biological & Cultural Influences

• Biological Preparedness: Innate tendencies to learn certain associations (e.g.,
  humans easily fear snakes but not flowers).

• Cultural Differences: Learning styles vary across cultures (e.g., collectivist vs.
  individualist reinforcement).

Key Terms & Studies

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How might classical conditioning explain PTSD?

2. Why is variable reinforcement more resistant to extinction?

3. How does observational learning influence social media behavior?

Applications

• Education: Using reinforcement to encourage participation.

• Therapy: Systematic desensitization for phobias (classical conditioning).

Chapter 7: Memory

Key Theme: Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. This
chapter explores how memories are formed, maintained, and sometimes distorted.

1. The Memory Process: Three Key Stages

1. Encoding

• Definition: Transforming sensory input into a form the brain can process.

• Types:

  • Acoustic: Encoding sounds (e.g., repeating a phone number aloud).

  • Visual: Encoding images (e.g., remembering a face).

  • Semantic: Encoding meaning (e.g., understanding a concept).

• Factors Improving Encoding:

  • Attention: Focused awareness enhances encoding.

  • Deep Processing: Relating information to existing knowledge (Craik &
    Lockhart).

  • Elaboration: Adding details (e.g., linking new info to personal experiences).

2. Storage

• Three Memory Stores:

  • Sensory Memory:

    • Iconic (Visual): Lasts <1 sec.

    • Echoic (Auditory): Lasts 2–4 sec.

  • Short-Term Memory (STM):

    • Capacity: 7±2 items (Miller’s Law).

    • Duration: ~20 sec without rehearsal.

    • Working Memory (Baddeley & Hitch): Active processing in STM
      (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive).

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM):

    • Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recall.

      • Semantic: Facts (e.g., capital of France).

      • Episodic: Personal events (e.g., your first day of school).

    • Implicit (Nondeclarative): Unconscious recall.

      • Procedural: Skills (e.g., riding a bike).

      • Classical Conditioning: Learned associations (e.g., fear of
        dogs).

3. Retrieval

• Recall vs. Recognition:

  • Recall: Retrieving info without cues (e.g., essay questions).

  • Recognition: Identifying info from options (e.g., multiple-choice tests).

• Retrieval Cues:

  • Context-Dependent Memory: Better recall in the same environment (e.g.,
    studying in the test room).

  • State-Dependent Memory: Better recall in the same emotional/physical
    state (e.g., remembering events while happy).

  • Mood-Congruent Memory: Recall matches current mood (e.g.,
    remembering sad events when depressed).

2. Forgetting & Memory Distortion

Why Do We Forget?

• Encoding Failure: Info never entered LTM (e.g., forgetting where you parked
  because you weren’t paying attention).

• Storage Decay (Ebbinghaus’ Curve): Memories fade over time.

• Retrieval Failure:

  • Interference:

    • Proactive: Old info disrupts new (e.g., calling your ex by your new
      partner’s name).

    • Retroactive: New info disrupts old (e.g., forgetting old passwords
      after learning new ones).

  • Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Partial retrieval failure.

• Motivated Forgetting (Freud): Repressing painful memories.

Memory Distortion

• Misinformation Effect (Loftus): False memories created by misleading info (e.g.,
  "Did you see the broken headlight?" implying there was one).

• Source Amnesia: Forgetting where a memory came from (e.g., thinking a dream
  happened in real life).

• Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, emotional memories (e.g., 9/11) that can still be
  inaccurate.

3. Biological Basis of Memory

• Brain Regions:

  • Hippocampus: Explicit memory formation (damage → anterograde
    amnesia).

  • Cerebellum: Implicit memory (e.g., motor skills).

  • Amygdala: Emotional memory (e.g., fear conditioning).

• Synaptic Changes:

  • Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthened neural connections through
    repetition.

4. Improving Memory

• Strategies:

  • Chunking: Grouping info (e.g., phone numbers as 555-1234).

  • Mnemonics: Memory aids (e.g., ROYGBIV for rainbow colors).

  • Spaced Practice: Studying over time (vs. cramming).

  • Self-Testing: Active retrieval strengthens memory.

Key Studies & Terms

Critical Thinking Questions