World History 🥳

Civilizations of the Americas

Rediscovering the Ancient Maya

• From 1830-1840 British diplomat and lawyer John Loyd Stephens traveled across Mesoamerica.

• He travels at Palenque the first maya city to be re-descovered in modern era

• Elite Warriors Uphold an Empire-Among Aztecs, a force of fierece solideres emegred to aid the ruler in maintaining an empire.

• The most highly regarded fighters were eagle and jaguar warriors

• Aztec warfare served both a political purpose-defending the empire and a ritual one.

• aztecs belived gods gave them a right to rule thats why they sacrificied people captived from battle

Civilizations of Mesoamerica

• Americans include 2 Continets, North America and South America

• Mesoamerica is made up of Mexico and Central America

• 12000-10000 years ago people first arrived in ameirca.

• people came from Asia and entered though Alaska.( migration took place near the end of the last ice age)

• during ice age because ice froze sea levels dropped and exposed bridge between siberia and alaska

• theory: hunters followed herds of bison and mammoths across the land bridge and south thorugh north america, central america, and south ameirca.

• newer theory: people migrated to parts of america much earlier along coastal routs with small boats.

Adapting to the new environments

americans faced variety of environments in which they could settle.

1. great mountain chains- The Rockies western americas

2. flow of 2 worlds four longest rivers, the Amazon of south and Mississippi of North

3. far to north and south was icy, treeless lands

4. closer to equator was hot, wet climate, and dense vegetation of the amazon rain forest.

People Begin to Farm and Build Villages

• learned to domesticate plants and animals - 8500 B.C and 2000 B.C

• In Mesoamerica Neolithic people cultivated a range of corps- beans,potatos, peppers ,tomatoes.

• doemsticated llamas and other animaks

• by 3000B.C in south america and 1500B.C in parts of mesoamerica farmers had settled in villages

Civilization Arises with the olmecs

• Olmecs were earliest american civilizations - emerged in tropical forests along gulf coast of mexico (lasted from 1500B.C to 400 B.C)

• powerfull class of priests and nobles stood at the top of society- they lived in ceremonial centers while common people lived in farming villages.

• much of olmec art is carved stone

• 14 giant stone heads found at major ceremonial centers of san lorezo and san veta

• olmecs also engaged in trade

• Olmecs invented the calendar

• mother culture of mesoamerica

The maya build widespread civilization

• olmecs ifluenced maya

• by 300 B.C the Maya were builiding large cities -EI mirador in guatalamala

• 250 B.C - maya golden age - classic period began with city-states flourishing from yucatan pensuala in southern mexico though much of central america.

• before maya developed, population created 2 farming methods for tropical enviroments

• in many areas farmers burned down forest and cleared area to plant

• maya cities never formed an empires but individual and powerful city-states evolved.the smaller city-states ruled over people directly

• maya may was not connected politically but they mainatined regular contact though system of economic exchange.

• trade items icluded daily use things like honey,salt and cotton.

• each maya city had its own ruler, usually males. women occasionally governed on their own or in the name of their sons.

• some nobles were military leaders,public workers,colleted taxes,enforeced laws.

• scribes, painters, sculptors were also highly respeted.

• merchants formed a middle class in society.majority of maya were farmers. to support cities farmers paid taxes in food and worked on constructional projects.

• some cities also included population of slaves who were caputred in war.

Cultural life of Maya

• advances in learning and the arts.

• maya developed a complex polythestic religion that influenced their cultural life.

• each person’s spirit is associated with particular animal.

• maya cities are known for towering temples and palaces built from stone. Atop the temples priests performed rites and sacrifices. some temples also served as a burial place for rulers, nobles and priests.

• Stella:tall stone monuments- images of nobles, warriors, powerful leaders,maya gods.

• maya developed hieroglyphic writing system. they scribed on stelae that include names of tulers and so on. they also wrote about astronomy and so on in books which was later on burned my spanish conquerors.

• many priests became experts in math and atronomy. they developed accurate 365 day solar calendar as well as 260-day ritual calendar.

• 900 A.D maya abanoded many of their cities

• movie:apocalito

Aztec Empire forms in Mexico

• after A.D 1200 people from north migrated into valley of mexico-identified themselves as seoarate tribes such as mexica.

• spoke one language- nahuatl and belived their origins began in aztlan so they are known as aztecs.

• A.D 1325 the Aztecs founded their capital city Tenochititlan .

• legend: gods had told aztecs to search for an eagle holding a snake in its beak and perching atop cactus

• aztecs found ways to create more farmland in their lake enviroment. they built chinapas-artifical islands make of mud piled atop reed mats- floating gardens.created canals for transportation.

• by 1517 aztec empire numbered 5-6 million people

Aztec society takes shape

• war brought wealth and power to aztec empire, tribute or payment from conquered peoples helped aztecs.

• Aztec empire had one ruler.

• coucil of nobles, priests and military leaders elected the emperor who leaded in war. nobles served as officials, judges, and governors of conquiered places, next came warriors who could rise to noble status by perofromeing well in battle. priests were class apart they performed rituals to please gods and prevent from disasters.

• middle class included long-distance traders majority of people were commoners who farmed land at the bottom were slaves and serfs. slaves could own land and buy their freedom.

• Aztecs belived in many gods, they have been centered at the city of teothucan

• teotihucan had massive temples, wide roads, large apartments.

• when teotihucan fell its culture survived and influneced later peoples of mesoamerica.

• they belived gods sacrifeiced themselves to help people

• priests were keepers of aztec knowledge. some ran schools others used their knowledge of anstronomy and math for foretell the future.

• aztecs like maya developed a 260 day ritual calendar

Andean Cultures of south america

• first cultures of south america developed in andean region.

• 1200 to 1450

• Andean civilizations excelled in agriculture, utilizing techniques like terrace farming to cultivate crops such as potatoes and maize in diverse climates.

• narrow coastal plain is dry, lifeless desert crossed by occasional rivers

• people settled in fishing villages along desert coast of peru and chile.

• they built large ceremonial centers and developed skills in pottery and weaving.

• Chavin-culture named for ruins at chavin de huantar(900 B.C) it was most probbebly political structure but it is known that cultures religion unified people thoughtout northern and cnetral peru

• Moche-A.D100-700 people named after their most famous city. skilled moche farmers developed methods for fertilizing solid . their leaders built roads and organized networks of relay runners to carry messages. in moche builders contructered largest adobe structure which is mixture of clay and plant fibers that becomes hard when dry.The Moche civilization was one of the earliest Andean cultures and is noted for its intricate pottery and impressive irrigation systems.

• Nazca people etched geoglyps in the desert.

• Huari developed east of the nazca culture and controlled much of perus mountain and coastal areas.developed southern shores of lake titicaca-boliva

Inca rulers maintain large empire

• most powerful civilizations of the Inca civilizations 1100s

• 1438 Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui a skilled warrior and leader proclaimed himself sapa inca or emperor

• his son Topa Inca Yupanqui continued expansion. cuzco as its capital

• sapa inca held absolute power. claiming to be son of the sun itself, he was also empire’s religious leader. gold was his symbol (sweat of the sun)

• his queen coya carried out imporant religious duties and sometimes governmend in his absence.

• people had no perosnal property. so there was little demand for barters and sale

• so trade did not play major role in inca economy. instead they used labor tax.

• nobles ruled the provinces along eith local cheiftains, below them officials carried out the day-to-day business of enforcing laws and organzing labor

• quipu:a collection of colored strings that weere knotted in different ways to represent various numbers,scholars belive that this may have been used for record of economics, religious and other information.

• to unite empire inca imposed their language quecha and their religion on people whom they concquered

• they created great road networks 14000 miles though mounitnes

• in the heart of city stood temple of sun with gold

• farmers expaneded step terraces built by earlier andrean people

• inca were some of the most skilled metalworkers in americas.alloy,copper,tin,bronze,silver,gold

• inca developed medical practices including surgery on human skull.they cleaaned area to be operated on and gave patient drug to sleep.

• inti:sun god

• inca civilization was center of learning and political power.

• 1525 huayna capac died suddenly of illness and civil war broke out weakinging the empire at the crucial moment the eve of arrival of spanish

people adapt to the desert southwest

• Hohokam built a complex irrigation system that included numerous canals. canals carried river water to fields as far as several miles away.

• anasazi began living in arizona,new mexico, colorado, utah.

• A.D 1150 anasazi built cliff residences for which they are famous for

• the largest of these cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde is present today

• these communities whcih spanish later called pueblos were made of multi-floor houses that were connected to one another by doorways and ladders

• Pueblo Bonito- largest anasazi pueblo-new mexico

• Kiva- a large underground chamber used for religious ceremonies and political meetings.

• Adeba abd later Hopewell people of the northeast are known for giant earthworks, some were large burial mounds others served for like platforms and defense walls.

• Mississippians built clusters of earthen mounds and even larger towns and ceremonial centers, their greatest center is cahokia.

• mississippians disappeared but their tradition survived among Natchez people who are known to worship sun they called their ruller who had absolute power the great sun. he and his family live don top of the pyramid mounds.

• in northern canada the Inuit adapged to the harsh climate of the arctic,they used recoursed of frozen land to survive.

• people in northwest coast lived in an far richer enviroment,pacific ocean and rivers.people built large permanent villages with homes made of wood.

• Potlatch was ceremony in which a person of high rank and wealth distributes lavish gifts to people.

• on northeast there was native american group who spoke iroquois language.tehy cleared land and built villages in the forest.

• Iroquois League: according to iroquois traditions the prophet dekanawidah urged these rivals to stop constant wars.in late 1500 he became one of the founder of the unique political system knwon as the iroquois league.this was alliance of 5 iroquois groups who were known as 5 nations-mohawk,oneida,onodaga,cayuga and seneca.members of nations ruled their own vil;ages but for bigger issues they met eachother..each clan had a clan mother who could name or remove members of the council.

Chapter 7. The Rise of Europe

Feudalism and the Manor economy

• Medieval society was a network of mutual obligations.even kings and nobles exchanged vows of loyality and service before witnesses.these vows were part of new political and legal system that governed european life during the middle ages.

Feudalism: A political system

• in the face of invasions by vikings, muslims and magyars, kings and emperors were too weak to maintain law and order.people needed to protect themselves so decentraliztion of political sturcture evolved known as feudalism

• Feudalism was a loosely organized system of rule in which powerful local lords divided their landholdings among lesser lords.

!!!!!Mutual obligations:political and legal relationship between lords and vassals was based on the exchange of the land for loyality and military service.Feudal Contract!!!!!

under this system a powerful lord granted his vassal a fief or estate. fiefs included peasnts to work the land as well as any building on it.he also agrreed to provide the lord with 40 days of military service each year and certin money payments and advice.

A Sturctured Society: All Aristocrats had a place in this sturcture of power.below the monarch were lords such as dukes and counts who held largest fiefs, each of these lords had vassals and they had their own vassals.

The king at the top.

• Lords below the king.

• Knights and vassals under the lords.

• Peasants at the bottom, doing most of the work.

The world of knights and nobles

rival lords battled constantly for power.many nobles began training in boyhood for future occupation as a knight.

at the age of 7 boy slated to become knight was sent away to the castle of his father’s lord.after this youth was dubbed a knight.

by 1100s monarchs and nobles owned stone castle with high walls and towers.in time of war the peasants in nearby villages would take refuge within the castle walls.

Noblewomen: restrictions and power

noblewomen played active roles in this warrior society. while her husband or father was off fighting the lady of the manor took over his duties. she supervised vassals and managed the household.sometimes she might even go to war and defend state.

a few medieval noblewomen took a hand in politics for example Eleanor of Aquitaine was the leading force in European politics for more than 50 years.

Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) daughter of the duke of aquitaine inherited her fathers lands. when she was only 15 she married the heri to french throne. eleanor had big influence over her husband king louis 7th.when louis ended his marriage to eleanor she regained control of aquitaine.1152she married another king henry second of england.leandor aided several of her sons in attempt to overthrow henry. when it failed henry had eleanor imprisoned. when henry died his son became king and let his mother free.

Chivarly:Romance and Reality-knights adopted a code of conduct called chivarly which required knights to be brave loyal and true to their word

The Manor: An Economic System

heart of medieval economy was the manor or lords estate.peasants worked on the manor.most of them were serfs-bound to the land, they could not be bought and sold but they were still not free.

Lords and peasants: they were bound toghether by mutual obligations. peasants had to work several days a week farming the lords land, repair roads, bridges and so on. peasants had to pay the lord a fee when they inherited their fathers acres.in return they had right to farm some land for them.they were gurateneed food house and land. few peasants lived beyond 35.

The medieval Church

In 597 AD, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, later known as Augustine of Canterbury, on a mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons (a group of Germanic tribes that had settled in England) to Christianity. St. Augustine and his fellow missionaries were successful in converting King Æthelberht of Kent, marking the beginning of the Christianization of England. They guided people on moral issues and offered assistance to the sick and needy.In the later Middle Ages, some parish priests ran schools.

the church was a social center as well as a place of worship because its was often the largest public building in village. baptism was entrance into community.The Church required Christians to pay a tithe, or tax equal to a tenth of their income. In the early Middle Ages, the tithe supported the local parish. later increasing the amounts of money were sent to rome.

Bishops who supervised parish priests amanged larger churches called cathedrals

cathedras buildings were a source of a pride to the communities that built them.cities all over europe were competing to build grander and taller cathedrals.

chruch tried to protect women it set minimum age for marriage. church courts could fine men who seriously injured their wives.yet they may could have punished women more if they would do same thing.

Monasteries and convents

The Benedictine rule, 530 a monk named benedict organized monasteery of monte cassino in central italy.he created rules.

under the rule monks and nuns took three vows.the first was the obidience to the abbot or abbess who headed monastery, second was poverty, third was chastity or purity. each day was divided into periods for workship work and study.

the male superior of monks is called an abbot. The female equivalent is an abbess.

because they developed much better agriculuture they helped develop economy in middle ages.

monasteries also provided basic health and educational services.their library cotained greek and roman works.educated monks also taught latin.

in middle ages the pope was the spiritual leader of the western christian church, based in rome.eventually they were claimed as papal supermecy, or authority over all secular rulers including kings.

the pope itself held vast lands in central italy later called papal states.

Religious authority and political power

church developed its own body of laws known as canon law as well as well its own courts. canon law governed many aspects of life including wills, marriages and morals.anyone who would disobey church law faced large penalties and worst of all was excommunication. those who were excommunicated could not receive the sacraments or chritian burial, which condemned them to hell for eternity. if a powerful noble opposed the church they would get interdicted meaning that they would exclude an entire town, region or even kingdom from receiving most sacraments and chritian burial.

corruption and reform

monks and nuns began to ignore vowvs of poverty. some clergy lived in luxury

Two movements for reform: 900s abbot berno set out to reform his monastery of cluny in eastern france. he refused to allow nobles or bishops to interfere in monastery affairs. 2) 1073 Gregory VII pope, began another push for reform he wanted to limit secular influence on the church.

New preaching orders: Friars- monks who did not live in isolated monasteries took different approach to reform, they traveled in europe’s growing towns, preaching to poor.first oder of firars the franciscans was founded by a wealthy italian St. Francis of Assisi. who have up on this comfortable life and devoted himself to preaching the gospels and teaching by his own examples of good work. St dominic spanish priest founded odmenican order of friars- they were teaching chritians belifs in order ro combat heresies religious doctorines that differeed from church teachings.

Jews in Medieval Europe

jews flurished in spain where muslim ruler where tolarent for both chritians and jews. spain became center of jewish culture.

by 1000s western europe had become more chritianized and prejudice against jews increased. whrn faced a disatsters they could not understand like diesedes they blamed in on jews. as churhc grew in power it issued orders forbidding jews to own their own land.in response most jews migrated to eastern europe.

Economic recovery sparks change

an agricultural revolution

it began in countryside where peasants adopted new technologies that made their fields more productive.by 800s peasants where using iron plows that carved deep into the heavy soil of northern europe. also new kind of harness allowed peasants to use horses rather than ocen to pull the plows.

see routies!

by 1100s people felt safer and began to travel more. cursader brought luxury goods back to europe from middle east. traders bean to crissctoss europe to meet the growing demand for goods. in 1200s german towns along the baltic sea formed the Hansetic Leauge an association to protect their trading interests which dominated in norther europe in for 150 years. it took actioons to robbers and priates.

richest cities emerged in northern italy and flanders - two ends of the profitable north-south trade industries. to protect their interest the merchants who set up a new town asked the local lord or king for charter. this written document set out rights and privelages of the town. in return merchants paid the lord or the king a large sum of money a yearly fee

A commercial Revolution

use of money increased so the need for capital or money for investemnt, stimulated the growth of banking houses. groups of merchants joined together in partnerships. they pooled their funds to dinance a large scale venture that would have been to costly for any individual trader.

later merchants developed a system of insurance to help reduce business risks. for small fee an underwritter insured the merchnats shipment.

europeans adopted some practices from the muslin merchants with whom they traded. these traders developed methods of using credit rather than cash so merchant could travel without carrying gold coins which were easily stolen.

The rise of the middle class

by year 100 merchants traders and artisans formed a new social class- between nobles and peasants they were called middle class.

merchants and artisans formed association known as guilds. merchants dominated town life passing laws and levying taxes.artisians organzied craft guilds. each guild represented workers in one occupation such as wavers, bankers…. guild members cooperated to protect their own economic interest.they limitied guild membership. no one except guild members could work in any tarde. they made rules to protect quality of their goods, labor hours, and set prices.guilds also set social services like schools and hospitals..

becoming a guild member

at the age if 7-8 child might become an apprentice or trainee to guild master. the apprentice usually spent 7 years to learn trading. guild master paid no wages but was required to give the apprentice food and housing.most worked for guild members as journeymen or salaried workers.

women often engaged in the same trade as her father or husband and might inherit his workshop if he died.

Town and city life

towns and cities were surrounded by high protective walls. newcomers had to settle in the fields outside the walls. atypical medieval city was jumble of narrow streets lined with tall houses. almost all cities and towns had a church with a steeple that could be seen for miles.

even a rich town had no garbage collection or sewer system, residents simply flung their wastes into streets

Chapter 8 A Time of Crisis

to europeans in the mid-1300s the end of the worlds seemed to have come

first the widespread crop failures brought famine and starvation. then plague and war ravaged populations.

The Black Death: a Global Epidemic

1347 a fleet of genoese trading ships loaded with grain left black sea port and set sail for Messina Sicily. by midvoyage sailors were falling sick and dying, soon towns people too in messina. this was black death and was raging though italy. 1348 it reached spain and france and then rest of the europe. death rate was worse than any war in history.

the plague spreads from asia

disease was spread by fleas carried by rats.bubonic plague had broken out before in europe, asia, and north africa but had subsided. in 1200s mongol armies conquered much of asia wich set off the new epidemic or outbreak.

in the early 1300s rats spread the plague in crowded chinese cities and killed 35 mill people.

some people turned to magic and witchcraft for cures, others plunged into wild pleasures beliving they would soon die.others saw it as gods punishment and beat themselevs for repent.some chritians blamed jews for plague, causing hysteria and killing thousands of jews.

economy suffers

european economy plunged to low ebb. when workers and emoloyers died the production declined. survivurs demanded higher wages. inflation or rising prices broke out.

coupled with fear of plague sparked explorsive revolts. angry peasants rampaged in england,france,germany. in cities artisans fought for more power. revolts erupted in 1300s-1400s

plague had spread both death and social unrest.

Upheaval in the church

late middle ages brought spiritual crisis,scnadal and division to roman catholic church. many priests died during plague.

Church splits: church was unable to provide strong leadership needed in this time.anticlerical sentment grew. in 1378 reformers elected their own pope to rule from rome. french cardinals responded by choosing a rival pope. for decades there was schism or split in church. germny ended crisis in 1417 by removing authority from all three popes and electing a compromise candidate.

In england john wycliffe an oxford professor attacked corruption in church, he insisted that the bible not church was source of christians truth. his followers began translating the bible into english so that people could read it themselves.

the church responded by persecuting wycliffe and his followers. his follower hus was burned at the stake.

The Hundred Years’ War

on top of this desasters came a long destructive war. between 1337 and 1453. England and France engaged in series of conflicts known as hundred years war.

French and English Rivalry growns

english rulers battled for centuries to hold onto the french lands of their Norman ancestors. when Edward III of England whose mother had been french princess, claimed french crown in 1337, war erupted anew between these rival powers.

england and france were also rivals for control of the english channel the waterway between their countries. each also wanted to control trade in the region.

The English win early victories

english won a sting of vitories in crecy 1346,poitiers 1356,agincourt 1415.

their success was due to new longbow wielded by english archers. then french’s fortunes were reversed.

Joan of Arc Fights for France

1429 a 17 years old peasant women joan appeared at court of charles VII uncrowed king of france. and said that god sent her to save france. he authorized her lead of army. joan inspired troops to fight. she was taken captive by english blamed witchcraft on her and burned her . church declared her saint. french took offence and with new powerful weapon cannon attacked english head castles.

Chapter:10 The Rise of Islam

religion of islam whose follwers are muslims emegred in arabian penisula-southwester asia was home to many aram tribes.

Nomadic herders called Bedouins moved around through desert and alos traded with setteled arab tribes in oasis towns, mostly Asia

Muhammad becomes a prophet

muhammad was born in the oasis town of mecca A.D 570

Mecca was a bustling market town at crossroads of several routes- it was also thriving piligrimage center. all weapons had to be laid down near temple, making mecca a safe place for business.

muhammad in his youth worked as a shepherd among bedouins, later he led caravans across desert and became successful merchant. at age of 25 he married khadija wealthy widow who ran caravan buisness. he became known for his honesty in business.

Muhammad becomes gods messenger

muhammad went to cave in the hills near mecca to meditate, he war irittated by greed of meccan people. he was 40 years old when he head voice of angel gabriel calling him. khadija ecouraged to accept the call, she became first convert to faith called islam. he devoted his life spreading islam. allah

The Hijra: A turning point

muhammeds rejection of traditional arab gods angered mecca’s merchants. 622 faced with threat of murder him and his followers left mecca for Yathrib a journey known as hijra.

later yathrib was renamed medina or a city of prophet and 622 became first year of muslim calendar. there muslims welcomed muhammed. they became community of muslims or Umma. he created rules that governed muslims. arabs adopted islam and meccasn grew more hostile towards them. meccans prepared for war.muhammed destroyed the idols in the kaaba- temple that he belived that abraham had built to worship the one true god. he redidicated kaaba to allah and became most holy place in islam. he died in 632

Teachings of islam

islam is monothestic- baes on belief in one god.

Quran-sacred text of Islam teaches that god is all powerful and compassinate, people are responsible for their actions. Abraham, Moses and Jesus and Muhammed.

Muslims study Quran

quran teaches gods will and provides a guide to life. emphasize hinesty, generostiy and social jsutice.

Muslims follow duties

all muslims followed 5 basic duties knwon as 5 pillars of islam.

• declaration of faith

• pray 5 times a day. after ritual washing muslims face holy city of mecca to pray. to prey they gather in houses of worship clled masjids or mosques

• give charity to poor

• fast from sunrise to sunset during holy month of ramadan-month when muhhammed recived first message from god.

• make the hajj or pilgrimage to mecca

another duty is Jihad or struggle in gods service.

people of the book- muslims,jews and Christians worship the same god. quran teaches that islam is God's final and complete revelation, while Hebrew scriptures and the Christian Bible contain portions of earlier revelations.

Islam: a way of life

islamic law governs daily life.

Sharia-Islamic system of law: body of law that includes interpreattion of the quran. sharia regualtes moral conduct. It does bot separate religion from criminal or civil law.

impact of islam on women

before islam women rights varied.arab women could not inherit property and had to obey a male guardian.

quran prohibited killing of female buring birth and granted women an inheritance and allowed them to reject marriage offer.

building a muslim empire

early challenges to islam

muhammad died and did not name a successor to lead the community. eventually they agreeed that Abu Bakr muhammeds father in law should be first caliph or succesor to muhammad.

abu bakr faces challenge because some followers were loyal towards muhammed and refused to follow him. he had several battles with wavering tribes and succeeded eventually.

The Byzantines and Persians had competed with each other over control of Arab lands. Once the Arabs united, they surprised their neighbors, conquering great portions of the Byzantine empire and defeating the Persians entirely.

divisions emerge within islam

The split between S u n n i and Shiite Muslims had a profound impact on later Islamic history. One group of Muslims felt that Muhammad had designated his son-in-law, Ali, to be his successor-They were called Shiites.

Shiites believe that the true successors to the Prophet are the descendants of Ali and Muhammad's daughter, Fatima. They believe that these descendants, called Imams. Another group felt that any good Muslim could lead the community, since there could be no prophet after Muhammad. 90% today are sunnis.

Sufis:A third tradition in Islam emerged with the S u fi s , Muslim mystics who sought communion with God through meditation, fasting, and other rituals.Sufis helped spread Islam by traveling, preaching, and being good examples to others.

Umayyad caliphs build an empire

Umayyad caliphate, a dynasty of Sunni caliphs that ruled the Muslim empire until 750. . Their conquests enabled the spread of Islam and created a foundation for the ethnically and religiously diverse civilization that flourished later. first 4 didnt demand

expanding the muslim empire

from egypt they went to defeat byzantine and then spain then went to france but could not succeed. . Muslims ruled parts of Spain for centuries, but advanced no farther into Europe.

reasons for muslim success

• weakness of byzantine and persian empires. longtime rivals had fought each to be exhaustion.

• arabs bold and efficient fighting methods

• faith muhammad had established

conquered people are treated fairly

Muslim leaders imposed a special tax on non-Muslims, but allowed Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians to practice their own faiths and follow their own laws.

Unlike some religions, Islam had no religious hierarchy or class of priests. In principle, ti emphasized the equality of all believ-ers, regardless of race, gender, class, or wealth.

Decline of the Umayyad Caliphate

Arabs had to adapt from living in the desert to ruling large cities and huge territories. To govern their empire, the Umayyads often relied on local officials.

While conquests continued, vast wealth flowed into Umayyad hands. When conquests slowed in the 700s, economic tensions increased between wealthy Arabs and those who had less. in addition, more and more resources were used to support the caliphs' luxurious lifestyle. B the eighth century, many Muslims criticized the court at Damascus for abandoning the simple ways of the early caliphs. Shiites considered the Umayyad caliphs to be illegitimate rulers of the Islamic community.

rise of the abbasids

Discontented Muslims found a leader in Abu al-Abbas, descended from Muhammad's uncle. he captured Damascus in 750. Soon after, he had members of the defeated Umayyad family killed. Only one survived, escaping to Spain. Abu alAbbas then founded the A b b a s i d dynasty, which lasted until 1258.

Changes Under the Abbasids

The Abbasid dynasty tried to create an empire based on the equality of all Muslims. ending the dominance of the Arab military class. Under the Abbasids, Islam became a more diverse religion because discrimina- tion against non-Arab Muslims ended.

The Abbassids created a more sophisticated bureaucracy and encouraged learning. more sophisticated bureaucracy and encouraged learning. The Abbasids also moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.

The most important official was known as the vizier, or the head of the bureaucracy, a position that had existed in Persian government.

splendors of baghdad

The second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, chose Baghdad as the site of his new capital. The walls formed a circle, with the caliph's palace in the center.

muslims culture in spain

The surviving member of the Umayyad family had fled to Spain and established an independent Muslim state.

muslim empire declines

The Abbasids never ruled Spain, and starting about 850, their control over the rest of the Muslim empire fragmented. As the caliph's power faded in some regions, Shiite rulers came to power. Between 900 and 1400, a series of invasions added to the chaos

seljuk turks take control

seljuk turks migrated into middle east from central asia and adopted islam and built large empire. By 1055, a Seljuk sultan, or ruler, controlled Baghdad, but he kept the Abbasid caliph as a figurehead.

mongols sweep across central asia

In 1216, Genghis Khan led the Mongols out of Central Asia across southwest Asia. Mongol armies returned again and again. In 1258, Hulagu, the grandson of Genghis, burned and looted Baghdad, killing the last Abbasid caliph.

Later, the Mongols adopted Islam

Muslim Civilization’s Golden age

under abbasids muslims absorbed traditions from many cultures. new civilization arose in cities from Baghdad to Córdoba.It incorporated all the people who lived under Muslim rule, including Jews and Christians.

social and economic advances

merchants were honored in muslim culture because muhammad was also it.Between

750 and 1350, merchants built a vast trading network across Muslim lands and beyond. Muslim, Jewish, and Christian traders traveled the Silk Road toward China and were a vital link in the exchange of goods between East Asia and Europe.

Small farming communities in desert areas faced a constant scarcity of water. To improve farm output, the Abbasids organized massive irrigation projects and drained swamplands between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Muslims enjoyed a certain degree of socialmobility, the ability to move up in social class. People could improve their social rank through religious,scholarly, or military achievements.

As in many earlier societies, slavery was a common institution in Muslim lands, though Islamic law encouraged the freeing of slaves as an act of charity.

Abbasid caliphs also created a class of Turkish slave-soldiers who were loyal only to the caliph.

Muslim art, literature, and architecture

Muslim art and literature reflected the diverse traditions of the various peoples who lived under Muslim rule, including Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Indians.Muslim religious leaders forbade artists to portray God or human figures in religious art, giving Islamic art a distinctive style.

Domed mosques and high minarets dominated Muslim cities. Adapted from Byzantine buildings, domes and arches became symbolic of Muslim architecture.

muslims seek knowledge

Both boys and girls received elementary education, which emphasized reading and writing. Muslims needed these skills to study the Quran. Al-Mamun and later caliphs established Bagh- dad as the greatest Muslim center of learning.

medicine

Under the caliphs, physicians and pharmacists had to pass a test before they could practice their professions. Physicians traveled to rural areas to provide healthcare to those who could not get to a city, while others regularly visited jails.

India’s Muslim Empires

as muslims mingled with indians each civilization absorbed elements from the other

the delhi sultanate

After the Gupta empire fell in about 550, India again fragmented into many local kingdoms. Hindu and Buddhist rulers spent huge sums to build and decorate magnificent temples. Trade networks linked India to the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and China.

The sultan of delhi defeats the hindus

arabs conquered indus valley in 711 but they advanced no farther into it. then around 1000 muslim turks and afghans fierce warriors pushed into india.

sultan mahmud of ghazi pillaged much of the north.in 1100s ghur defeated hindu armies across northern plain and made delhi his capital. his successors organized land ruled by sultan. this was start of musllim rule in northern india

Muslim Rule changes indian government and society

Muslim rule brought changes to Indian government and society. Sultans intro- duced Muslim traditions of government. Many Turks, Persians, and Arabs migrated to India to serve as soldiers or officials.trade between india and muslim lands increased.

The Sultans lose power

in 1398 tamerlane invaded india he smashed into delhi( capital) thousands of artisans were enslaved to build tamerlane’s capital at samarkand. sultans no longer controlled a large empire. northern india again fragmented this time into hindu and muslims

Muslims and Hindus clash

The widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries contributed to the drastic decline of Buddhism as a major religion in India.many hindus were killed, in time though relations became more peaceful.

Hindu-muslim differences

hinduism was an ancient religion that had evolved over thousands of years. they recognized many sacred texts and prayed before statues representing many gods.

islam by contrast was newer faith with single sacred texts and they saw statues and carving in hindu temples as false gods.

A blending of cultures

eventually delhi sultans grew more tolorant of their hindu subjects. later on hinduism was accepted as a monothesitic religion. they were allowed to practice their religion as long as they paid poll tax. some sultans even left rajahs or local hindu rulers in place.

during delhi a growing number of hindus converted to islam.some lower-castle hindus prefered islam beccause tehy rejected castle.

Mughal india

1526 turkish and mongol armies again poured though mountain passes into india.

just north of delhi babur met huge army led by sultan ibrahimhis force was small but he had cannons, he set up Mughal Dynastu

akbar the great

cheif builder of mughal empire was babur’s greandson akbar. he created stron central government. althought a muslim he won the support of hindu subjects though his policy of toleration.He opened government obs to Hindus of al castes and treated Hindu princes as his partners in ruling the vast empire.albar ended tax on non-muslims and married hindu princess.

akbar’s successors

his son jahangir was weak ruler and his wife Nur Jahan did most of the work she loved poetry and royal sports. she was most powerful woman in indian history until 12th century. high point of mughal literature art and architecture came when reign of shah jahan -akbars grandson when his wife died.

Early civilizations of africa

Sahara- largest desert in the world is in africa

the influence of Geography

africa is second largest continent, with wide range of climates which contributed to the diverse in their culture. africas vegetation regions create wide bands taht strech across the continent.. along the equador is a band of tropical rain forest. africas geograpical futures act as barriers for easy movement also deserts and rain forests.

resources spur trade

africas mineral wealth has spurred trade across continent. salt, gold, iron, copper. trade also linked africa to other continents.initually it was hindred by deserts ut later on trade expanded with new introdution of a new form of transportation from asia -the camel - ships of desert. camels could carry heavy loads.

people and ideas migrate

africa was home of earliest ancestors of modern people.

the sahara dries out

in africa paleothic people developed skills as hunters and gatherers. by 5500B.C neolithic farmers learned to cultivate nile valley and domesticate animals. neolithic villages appeared in sahara which was well-watered area. about 2500 B.C climate changed slowly and dreid out sahara it became desert this is process of desertification which prompted migration.

the Bantu migrations

migrations contributed to the rich diversity of cultures in africa. west african people spoke a variety of languages deriving from a single common language. the root language is called Bantu which gives this movement its name - the Bantu migrations.

as they migrated into southern africa they spread their skills in farming, ironworking, domesticating animals.

Nubia rivals Egypt

trade let to contact between nubia and egypt. it also let rivalry as both powers desired to control trade in the region. 1500 B.C nubia was under egyptian control and remained like that for 500 years. by 1100 B.C nubia gained its independence and then 730 nubia king Piankhi conquereas result they adopted many egyptian traditions.d egypt. in 670 nubia was invaded by assyrians, nubia was forced to retreat.

Meroe masters trade and iron

by 500 assyrian invaders had forced nubian rulers to move their capital from napata to meroe.meroe commanded both nile’s north-south trade and east-west trade network, nubia also sent gol, ivory, animal skins, perfumes, enslaved people to meditarranean world and southwest asia.

meore was successful center of trade. because of its location and resourses, was rich in iron. it produced iron tools and weaponery needed to defend kingdom.

splendor and decline

nubians worshiped their own gods including apedemak, lion-headed warrior god. they followed their own culture. at mereo artistic style reflected a greater sense of freedom than did egyptian styles. they also created their own writing.

outside influences effect north africa

pheonicians build carthage

carthage was rising a great north african power, founded by phoenician traers as a port on mediterranean trade. romans burned city to ground-punic war

rome rules north africa

rome gained control of narrow strip of africa betweeen miditerrnean coast and the sahara.there tehy built roads, dams, cties. romans developed north africas farmlands as a granary- a region that produces much grain to feed roman empire. north africa also provided soliders for roman army. under roman rule christianity spread to the cities of north africa. augustine was born there who was bishop and most influential chritian.

islam spreads into africa

in 690 muslim arabs conqered and occupied the cities of north africa. under arabic rule islam replaced christianity as a dominant religion of north africa. and arabic replaced latin as its language.

kingdoms of west africa

trading centers like city of gao developed over time throughout africa. some became wealthy international commercial centers.

trade in sahara

salt was rare in many regions of africa but it was naccesary.

surplus leads to trade

as sahara dried out some neolithic peoiple migrated to southward into savanna. A.D 100 settled agricultural villages were expanding this expansion eas due of development of trade.

farming villages began to produce a surplus ( amount more than nacessary), they began trade their surplus food for products form other villages.

trading gold for salt

gold and salt dominated the sahara trade. gold was avalible in ghana nigeria and senegal and in exchange west africans traded equally important salt.

Ghana: the land of gold

rulers of soninke people were able to unite many farming villages and create kingdom of Ghana. from there king controlled gold-salt trade routes.

cities of splendor

capital of ghana was kumbi saleh which was made up of two separate walled towns. first place was dominated by the royal palace. in second prosperous muslim merchants from north of sahara lived in luxurious stone buildings.

influence of islam

muslim merchants brought their islamic faith with them to ghana. king employed muslims as officials and used their military technology and ideas about government.

muslims also introduced their written language and business methods. few cities adopted islam. gahna was swallowed by rising new power of wester african kingdom of Mali.

the kingdom of mali

Mandinka people on the upper Niger suffered a bitter defeat by a rival leader. Their king and all but one of his sons were executed. According to tradition, the survivor was Sundiata, a sickly boy regarded as too weak to be a threat. By 1235, however, Sundiata had crushed his enemies, won control of the gold trade routes, and founded the empire of Mali.

mansa musa rules mail

manasa or kings of mali expanded their influence over the gold mining regions to the south and salt supplie of taghaza

greatest ruler of mali was mansa musa he expanded malis broders westward to atlantic ocean.e converted to Islam and based his system of justice on the Quran. However, in order to ensure prosperity and peace in his kingdom, he did not impose Islam on the people, but promoted religious freedom and tolerance.

the hajj of the mansa musa

Mansa Musa fulfilled one of the Five Pillars of Islam by making the hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca. Through his pilgrimage, Mansa Musa showed his devotion to Islam. He also forged new diplomatic and economic ties with other Muslim states. In addition, he brought back scholars, archi- tects, and teachers who helped promote Islamic education in Mali.

new empire in songhai

by 1400, mali weakened and empire shriveled. 1460 wealthy trading city of Gao had became the capital of emerging west African kingdom of Songhai

expanding the empire

songai developed on fertile region on Mali and niger. 1464-1494 solider-king Sonni Ali built the largest state that had ever existed in west africa. he brought trade routes and wealthy cities like timbuktu under his control. unlike rlers of mali he did not adopt islam instead he followed traditional religious belifs.

after sonni ali’s death in 1942 emperor askia muhammad set up dynasty which he expanded over the terittory of songai and improved governemnt. he set up bureaucracy with separate departments for framing, military, treasury. like mansa musa, asikia muhammad made pilgrimage to mecca that led to stronger ties with wider muslim world.

Armies invade from the north

songai continued to prosper even after death of askia muhammad in 1528 but there was frequent changes in leadership.

in 1549 askia daud became emperor and the empire experienced a period of relative peace. after his death there was civil war. at this time sultan of morocco ahamad al mansur sent his armies south to seize the songhaigod and salt mines. 1591 these invaders conquered the empire. moroccans were unable to rule an empire that streched across the sahara

smaller societies of west africa

kingdom of benin developed in the rain forest while fertile norther lands of moder-day nigeria were home to Hausa people.

the forest kingdom of benin

south of savanna bening rose in rain forests of guinea coast. forest people built farming villages and traded pepper and ivory and later slaves to their neighbors in savanna

rulers of benin organized their kingdom in 1300s, their king was a political, judical and religious leader. still power was spread to other figures like queen and council of hereditary chiefs.

benin scultors developed their own unique style for representing the human face and form. their works depected warriors, queen mothers and the oba himself( king)

Walled city-states of hausa

for protection the Hausa built walls around their villages. 1300s, hausa built a number of independent clay-walled cities which developed into commercial centers where cotton weavers and dyers, leatherworkers and other artisians produced goods for sale. hausa good were sold as far away as north africa and southern europe.

Kano was most prosperous hausa city-state with population more than 30,000. kanos greatest king muhammad rufa was muslim as were many city merchants and officials. islamic law gretaly influenced government.

many hausa rulers were women such as Amina of city-state of zazzau she cpnquered kano and other regions.

Kingdoms and Trading states of east africa

A.D 350 king ezana of axum conquered the ancient Nile kingdom of Nubia. king Ezana increased his control of Red Sea trade

Axum: center of goods and ideas

Southeast of Nubia. peoples of Axum were descended from African farmers and people from the middle east who brought jewish traditions though arabia. this merging of cultures gave rise to a unique written and spoken language Geez.

Trade brings wealth

Axum profited from the startegic location of its 2 main cities - port of Adulis on the red sea and the upland capital city of axum.trade connected Africa, India and Mediterranean world.

Axum converts to christianity

Greek, Egyptian, Arab and Jewish merchants mingled with traders from Africa, India and other regions. by 300 chrisitianity had reached the region. after converting to the new religion king ezana made christianity the official religion of axum. older temples were replaced with christian churches. at first religion strengthened the ties between Axum, North Africa and mediterranean world. in 600s islam began spreading across north africa and other regions surrounding axum. Axum now was isolated from its own trade network. civil war and conomic decline combined to weaken axum,kingdom slowly declined.

Ethiopia: A Christian outpost

even though axums political and economic power faded its cultural and religious influence did not disappear. this legacy survived among people of todays nothern ethiopia.

An isolated Ethiopia

Ethiopia was protected by rugged mountain so they were able to maintain their independece for centuries. in 1200s king Lalibela came to power in Ethiopia, he directed the building of 11 remarkable churches.they were also in touch with christian communities in Egypt. traditional east african music and dance were adapted and their infulence is still felt in ethiopian church services toay

Judaism in ethiopia

ethiopians observed some of the jewish holidays and dietary laws. some ethiopians practiced judaism rather than christianity.These Ethiopian Jews, the Falasha, lived in the mountains of Ethiopia until the late 1900s, when most evacuated to Israel during a long famine.

East african city-states

while axum declined a strig of commercial cities- Kilwa, Modgadish, Mombasa, Sofala arose along the east african coast. under protection of local african rulers, Arab and Persian mechants set up muslim communities beginning in the 600s.

port cities as well as offshore islands such as Lamu and zanzibar were ideally located for trade with Asia.

Trading centers flourish

by 600s sailors learned that annual moonsoon winds could carry sailing ships between india and africa. east african coast welcomed ships from arabia, persia and china. traders acquired ivory, leopard skins, iron.

trade was not only beneficial for merchants but also for local rulers by helping them build strong independent city-states. a Muslim visitor described Kilwa the most successful city-state as one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns in the world.

Trade shapes Swahili

successful east african international trade system let to the emergence of a cibrant culture and a new language both known as Swahili.

traders form the middle east and asia began to settle permanently in flourishing trading cities such as Kilwa. Local easr african culture absorbed cultural elements from these new residents. in addition many arabic words were absorbed into local Bantu-based language.

Stone houses of great Zimbabwe

to the south and inland from the coastal city-states, massive stone ruins sprawl across rocky hilltops. the looming walls, large palace and cone-shaped towers were once part of the powerful and prosperous capital of a grat insland empire, known as Great Zimbabwe

Island capital of trade

zimbabwe- stone houses (bantu language)

great zimbabwe was built by succesion of bantu-speaking people who settled in region between 900-1500. great zimbabwe was part of trade network that reached acroos the indian ocean.they also had artisians skilled in making jewelery and weaving cotton cloth.ruler was god -king who presided over a large court. belowthe king a cetral bureaucracy may have ruled an inner ring of provinces.

zimbabwe falls to ruins

by 1500 zimbabwe was in decline some suggest that population had grwon too graeat and alos plus civil war.

Societies in medieval africa

neolithic revolution led to the beginning of settled farming communities located in areas with ferile soil and proximity to water. advancements in transportation such as the use of camel increased community’s reach beyond its borders.trade let to creating indipendent stong city-state.

family patterns

family was the basic unit of society. in small societies basic family unit was the nuclear family or parents and children living and working as a unit. in other communities family units included the extended family- parents,children and serveral generations such as grandparents and ucles

Kinship

some families were patrilineal in these families important kinship ties such as inheritance were passed though the father’s side.other families were materilineal with inheritance traced though mother’s side.

matrilineal cultures forged stong ties between brothers and sisters. brothers were expeced to protect their sisters.

Extended lineages

each family beloned to a lineage, or a group of households who claimed a common ancestor. belonging to a particular family, lineage or clan gave people a sense of community with shared responsibilites to that community.

An individual's place in some medieval African societies was also determined by a system of age grades. An age grade included all girls or boys born in the same year. Each age grade had particular responsibilities and privileges.

Political patterns

unlike large kingdoms smaller medieval african societies were often organized with power sharded among a number of people rather than cetralized in the hands of a single leader.people rather than centralized in the hands of a single leader. In some villages, a chief had a good deal of authority, but in many others, elders made the major decisions.in west women was domanant and acted as a peacemaker.

villages often made decisions consensus- general agreement

limited power

another form of government developed when many villages were grouped into districts and provinces that were governed by offciials appointed by king.The kingdom of Kongo, which flourished around AD.. 1500 in central Africa, is an example. There, each village still had its own chief.

religious beliefs

Many African peoples believed that a single, unknowable supreme being stood above all the other gods and goddesses. Some African peoples believed, like the Chinese, that the spirits of their ancestors could help, warn, or punish their descendants on Earth.

Chapter 12: the spread of civilization in East an Southeast Asia

Two Golden ages of china

in late 600s Wu Zhao became the only woman to rule China in her own name. her strong rule helped guide china though one of its most brilliant periods.

At a time when Europe was fragmented into many small feudal kingdoms, two powerful dynasties-the Tang and the Song-restored unity in China.

The Tang Dynasty Reunifies China

• after Han dynasty collapsed in 220, China broke apart and remained divided nearly for 400 years.

• Farm production expanded and technology slowly improved. Buddhism spread.

• although invaders stormed northern China they often adopted Chinese civilization rather than demolishing it.

• during the brief Sui dynasty (589-618) the emperor Sui Wendi reunited the north and south. but China was not restored to its earlier glory until the emergence of the Tang dynasty in 618

The Tang build an empire

• the first Tang emperor Li Yuan was general under the Sui dynasty. when Sui began to crumble, Li Yuan’s 16 year old son Li Shimin urged him to lead a revolt.

• 8 years later Li Shimnin pressured his aging father to step down and mounted the throne himself taking the name Tang Taizong

• Later Tang rulers carried empire building to new heights, conquering territories deep into central Asia.

• Chinese armies forced the neighboring lands- Vietnam, Tibet, Korea to become Tributary states

• while these states remained self-governing, their rulers had to acknowledge Chinese supremacy and send regular tribute to the Tang emperor

• students from korea and japan traveled to Tang capital to learn about chinese governmnet,law and arts

the government and economy grow

• Wu Zhao helped restore Han system of uniform government thoughout China.

• they rebuilt the bureacracy and enlarged the civil service system to recruit talented officials trained in confucian philosophy.

• Tang emperors institutued a system of Land Reform in which they broke up large agriculture holdings and redistibuted the land to peasants. this policy strengthened the central governemnt by weakening the power of large landowners.

• it also increased government revenues since the peasants who farmed their own land would be able to pay taxes

The Tang Dynasty Declines

• later Tang emperors lost terittories in Central Asia to the Arabs.

• corruption, high taxes,rebellions all contributed to the downward swing of the dynastic cycle.

• in 907 the rebel general overthrew the last tang emperor.

The Song Dynasty

• in 960 a scholarly general named Zhao kuangyin reunited much of china and founded the Song Dynasty.

• song ruled for 319 years, longe than Tang but they controlled less terittories.

• In the early 1100s, the Song Dynasty faced invasions from the north by the Jurchen people, who took over the northern part of China. This forced the Song to move south of the Huang (Yellow) River, where they set up a new capital in Hangzhou.

• in late 1200s invaders from north called the Mongols attacked and overthrew the Song

• Song period was a time of great achievement, Under the Song, the Chinese economy expanded because of improved farming methods and open border policy.

• The latter allowed a new type of faster-growing rice to be imported from Southeast Asia. Farmers were now able to produce two crops a year, one of rice and one of

  a cash crop to sell.

• system of canals had been built that encour- aged internal trade and transportation. The Grand Canal, completed during the Sui dynasty, linked the Huang River to the Chang River. As a result, food grown in the south could be shipped to the capital in the north.

• To improve trade, the government issued paper money. China's cities, which had been mainly centers of government, now prospered as centers of trade.

China’s ordered society

• Under the Tang and Song, China was a well-ordered society. At its head was the emperor, whose court was filled with aristocratic families.China's two main social classes were the gentry and the peasantry.

The Gentry value education

• Most scholar-officials at court came from the g e n t r y , or wealthy landowning class.

• They alone could afford to spend years studying the Confucian classics in order to pass the grueling civil service exam.

• The Song scholar-gentry valued learning more than physical labor.

• New schools of Confucian philosophers emphasized social order based on duty, rank, and proper behavior.

Peasants work the land

• Most Chinese were peasants who worked the and, living on what they produced.

• To add to their income, some families produced handicrafts such as baskets or embroidered items. They carried these products to nearby market towns to sell or trade for salt, tea, or iron tools.

• Peasants lived in small, largely self-sufficient villages that managed their own affairs.

• In China, even peasants could move up in society through education and government service. If a bright peasant boy received an education and passed the civil service examinations, both he and his family rose in status.

• Slaves in early China, however, did not have such opportunities.

Merchants have lowest status

• some merchants acquired wealth. Still, according to Confucian tradition, mer- chants had an even lower social status than peasants since their riches

  came from the labor of others.

• An ambitious merchant, therefore, might buy land and educate one son to enter the ranks of the scholar-gentry.

• They often restricted where foreign merchants could live and even limited the

  activities of private traders.

The status of Women

• Women had higher status in Tang and early Song times than they did later.

• A man's wife and his mother had great authority, managing servants and family finances.

• when woman married she became part of her husband’s family. she could not keep her dowry the payment that a woman brings to a marriage, and could never remarry.

• Women's subordinate position was reinforced in late Song times when the custom of foot binding emerged. The feet of young girls were bound with long strips of cloth, producing a lily-shaped foot about half the size of a foot that was allowed to grow normally.

• Tiny feet and a stilted walk became a symbol of nobility and beauty.

• Women with bound feet often could not walk without help. Thus, foot binding reinforced the Confucian tradition that women should remain inside the home.

The Tang and Song develop a rich culture

Although their splendid royal palaces were long ago destroyed, many paintings, statues, temples, and ceramics have survived.

Artists paint harmony

• Along with poetry, painting and calligraphy were essential skills for the scholar-gentry.

• The Song period saw the triumph of Chinese landscape painting Steeped in the Daoist tradition, painters sought to capture the spiritual essence of the natural world.

Architecture and porcelain

• Buddhist themes dominated sculpture and influenced Chinese architecture.

• The Indian stupa evolved into the graceful Chinese pagoda, a multistoried temple with eaves that curve up at the corners.

• Chinese sculptors created striking statues of the Buddha. These statues created such a strong impression that many people today picture the Buddha as a Chinese god rather than an Indian holy man.

Chinese writing

Prose and poetry flowed from the brushes of Tang and Song writers. Scholars produced works on philosophy, religion, and history. Short stories that often blended fantasy, romance, and adventure made their first appearance in Chinese literature.

Probably the greatest Tang poet was Li Bo (lee boh). A zestful lover of life and freedom, he moved about from one place to another for most of his life.

Mongols and Ming Empires

About 1200, Mongols burst out of central Asia to conquer an empire strecthing across Asia and Europe.In the process, they overran Song China and imposed Mongol rule on its people

Mongol armies build and empire

The Mongols were a nomadic people (communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas). who grazed their horses and sheep on the steppes, or vast, treeless plains, of Central Asia.

Rival Mongol clans spent much of their time warring with one another. In the early 1200s, however, a brilliant Mongol chieftain united these warring tribes.

this chieftrain took the name Genghis Khan- Universal ruler. under his leadership Mongol forces conquered a vast empire.

Mongols invade China

• Genghis Khan imposed strict military discipline and demanded absolute loyalty.

• His highly trained mobile armies had some of the most skilled horsemen in the world

• Mongol armies conquered the Asian steppe lands with some Mongols advance

  into China. ease, but as they turned on China, they encountered the problem of attacking walled cities.

• Chinese and Turkish military experts taught them to use cannons and other new weapons.

• Genghis Khan did not live to complete the conquest of China. His heirs, however, continued to expand the Mongol empire. For the next 150 years, they dominated much of Asia.

• Protected by steep mountain ranges, India avoided invasion.

Rulers establish order and peace

• Once conquest was completed, the Mongols were not oppressive rulers. Often, they allowed conquered people to live much as they had before-as long as they regularly paid tribute to the Mongols.

• Genghis Khan had set an example for his successors by ruling conquered lands with toleration and justice. He listened to the ideas of Confucians, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, Jews, Zoroastrians

• and Zoroastrians.In the 1200s and 1300s, the sons and grandsons of Genghis Khan

  established peace and order within their domains. Today, many historians refer to this period of order as the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace.

• Political stability set the stage for economic growth. Under the protectionof the Mongols, who now controlled the great Silk Road, trade flourished across Eurasia.

• Cultural exchanges increased as foods, tools, inventions, and ideas spread along the protected trade routes. From China, the use of gunpowder moved westward into, Europe.

China under Mongol Rule

Although Genghis Khan had subdued northern China, the Mongols needed nearly 70 more years to conquer the south. Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan finally toppled the last Song emperor in 1279.

An All-Mongol Government

Kublai Khan tried to prevent the Mongols from being absorbed into Chinese civilization as other conquerors of China had been.

• He decreed that only Mongols could serve in the military. He also reserved the highest government jobs for Mongols or for other non-Chinese officials whom he employed.

• Kublai allowed Chinese officials to continue to rule in the provinces.

• he had Arab architects design his palace, and many rooms reflected Mongol

  steppe dwellings. Kublai rebuilt and extended the Grand Canal to his new capital, which made the shipment of rice and other goods easier.

• Kublai adopted a Chinese name for his dynasty, the Yuan (yo0 AHN), and turned Khanbaliq into a Chinese walled city.

Marco polo writes about China

• The italian merchant Marco Polo was a visitor to china during Yuan dynasty

• in 1271 Polo left venice with his father and ucle, He crossed Persia and Central Asia

  to reach China. He then spent17 years in Kublai's service.

• along the way. In his writings, Marco Polo left a vivid account of the wealth and splendor of China. He described the royal palace of Kublai Khan and also described China's efficient royal mail system,with couriers riding swift ponies along the empire's well-kept roads.

Mongols continue outside contact

As long as the Mongol empire prospered, contacts between Europe and Asia continued.The Mongols tolereated a variety of beliefs.

The Ming restore Chinese rule

The Yuan dynasty declined after the death of Kublai Khan, which occurred in 1294

• most chinese despised the foreign mongol rulers. heavy taxes, corruption and natural disasters led to frequent uprisings.

• Finally, Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant leader, forged a rebel army that toppled the Mongols and pushed them back beyond the Great Wall.

• In 1368, he founded a new Chinese dynasty, which he called the Ming, meaning brilliant.

• They initially moved the capital to Nanjing, which they felt possessed

  more characteristics of the Chinese, but eventually moved it back to present-day Beijing.

• The Ming restored the civil service system, and Confucian learning again became the road to success. The civil service exams became more rigorous than ever.

• A board of censors watched over the bureaucracy, rooting out corruption and

  disloyalty.

Economy Grows

• . The fertile, well-irrigated plains of eastern China supported a population of more than 100 million.

• . In the Chang River valley, peasants produced

  huge rice crops. Better methods of fertilizing helped to improve farming.

• In the 1500s, new crops reached China from the Americas, especially corn and

  sweet potatoes.

• The Ming repaired the extensive canal system that linked various regions, made trade easier, and allowed cities to grow.

Culture Flourishes

• Ming artists developed their own styles of landscape painting and created

  brilliant blue and white porcelain.

• Ming vases were among the most valuable and popular Chinese products exported to the West.

• Confucian scholars continued to produce classical poetry. At the same time, new forms of popular literature to be enjoyed by the common people began to emerge.

Chinese fleets sail the seas

• Early Ming rulers proudly sent Chinese fleets into distant waters to show

  the glory of their government.

• The most extraordinary of these overseas ventures were the voyages of the Chinese admiral and diplomat Zheng He

Zheng He and his fleets

• s Starting in 1405, Zheng He commanded the first of seven expeditions.

• The goal of each expedition was to promote trade and collect tribute from lesser powers across the western seas.

• In the wake of these expeditions, Chinese merchants settled in Southeast Asia and India and became a permanent presence in their trading centers.

• The voyages also showed local rulers the power and strength of the Chinese empire

Exploration ends

• In 1435, the year Zheng He died, the Ming emperor suddenly banned the building of seagoing ships. Later, ships with more than two masts were forbidden. Zheng He's huge ships were retired and rotted away.

• Some speculate that the fleets were costly and did not produce profit.Also, Confucian scholars at court had little interest in overseas ventures and commerce. To them, Chinese civilization was the most successful in the world.

• They wanted to preserve its ancient traditions, which they saw as the source of stability.

• Fewer than 60 years after China halted overseas expeditions, the explorer Christopher Columbus would sail west from Spain in search of a sea route to Asia.

Diverse Cultures of southeast Asia

• Buddhism

• located between china and india today known as southeast Asia, was strongly influenced by both of these powerful neighbors.

• made up of 2 major regions. first includes several peninsulas that just south between india and china

• second is Island southeast asia consists more than 20,000 islands scattered between the Indian ocean and south china sea.

separated by mountains

• mainland is separated from rest of Asia by mountains and high plateaus.

• mountains also separated 4 main river valleys of southeast Asia

Trade routes in the southern seas

• Mosoons or seasonal winds shaped trading patterns in osuthern seas..

• ships traveled northeast in summer and southwest in winter.

• international trade network linked India, southeast asia and china to east africa and middle east.

early traditions

• The peoples of Southeast Asia developed their own cultures before Indian or Chinese influences shaped the region.

• Over the centuries, diverse ethnic groups speaking many languages settled in Southeast Asia

• Living in isolated villages, they followed their own religious and cultural patterns.

• Many societies were built around the nuclear family rather than the extended families of India and China.

• Women had greater equality in Southeast Asia than elsewhere in Asia.

Indian culture spreads to southeast Asia

• indian merchants and Hindu priests filtered into south Asia, and spread thweir culture. introduced Theravada belifs.

• in early centuries s A.D., Indian traders settled in Southeast Asian port cities in growing numbers.

• They gave presents to local rulers and married into influential families.

• Local Indian families exercised considerable power. Also, peo- ple from Southeast Asia visited India as pilgrims or students.

• Indian influence reached its peak between 500 and 1000.

Indians bring Islam

• long after Hinduism and Buddhism took root in Southeast Asia Indians carried a third religion Islam into region

• By the 1200s, Muslims ruled northern India. From there, traders spread Islamic beliefs

• Today, Indonesia has the largest Muslim population of any nation in the world.

New Kingdoms and Empires emerge

Pagan Kingdom:

• Pagan kingdom arises: arose in fertile rise-growing Irrawaddy valley in present day mynamar

• 1044 king Anawrahta United the region, he is credited with bringing Buddhism to the Burman people.

• he made Pagan a major Budhist center

• filed city with magnificent stumpas or domeshaped shrines

• pagan fell in 1287 by conquering Mongols

Khmer empire:

• Indian influences also helped shape the Khmer empire, which reached its peak between 800-1350

• The Khmer people adapted Indian writing, mathematics, architecture, and art.

• Khmer rulers became pious Hindus.

• In the 1100s, King Suryavarman built the great temple complex at Angkor Wat.

• Hundreds of carved figures tell Hindu myths and glorify the king.

Sirvijaya Empire flourishes

• In Indonesia, the trading empire of Srivijaya flourished from the 600s to the 1200s.

• Both Hinduism and Buddhism reached this island empire. As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, however, the local people often blended Indian beliefs into their own forms of worship based on nature spirits.

Vietnam Emerges

• In most of Southeast Asia, Indian influence outweighed Chinese influence.

• Indian traditions spread mostly through trade rather than conquest. China, however, sent military forces to conquer the neighboring state of Annam

• The heart of northern Vietnam was the Red River delta

Chinese domination

• In 1 B.C., Han armies conquered the region, and China remained in control for the next 1,000 years.

• During that time, the Vietnamese absorbed Confucian ideas. They adopted the Chinese civil service system and built a government bureaucracy similar to that found in China.

The vietnamese preserve their identity

• Despite these powerful Chinese influences, the Vietnamese preserved a strong sense of their separate identity.

• In AD. . 39, two noble sisters, Trung Trac and Trung Nhi, led an uprising that briefly drove the Chinese occupiers from the land

• They tried to restore a simpler form of government based on ancient Vietnamese traditions.

• Finally in 939, as the Tang dynasty collapsed in China, Vietnam was able to break free from China.

The Ottoman and Safavid Empires

• 2 dynasties dominated the Middle East and parts of Eastern Europe.

• these empires owned much of their success to new weapons that changed warfare

• The new military technology helped the Ottomans and Safavids create strong central governments. As a result, this period from about 1450 to 1650 is sometimes called "the age of gunpowder empires."

The Ottoman Empire Expands

• Ottomans were a Turkish-speaking nomadic people who migrated from Central Asia into northwestern Asia Minor.

• Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, arrived at Mohács, on the plains of Hungary,Ottoman expansion threatened the crumbling Byzantine empire.

• The battle began at noon and was over ni two hours.

• Two weeks later, they seized the Hungarian capital at Buda and prepared ot lay siege to the nearby Austrian city of Vienna.

• After several failed attempts to capture Constantinople, Mehmet I finally succeeded in 1453.

• After a nearly two-month siege, Ottoman cannons finally blasted gaps in the great defensive walls of the city, and it became the new capital of the Ottoman empire. From Constantinople (renamed Istanbul)

• These powerful Muslim states—of the Ottomans, the Safavids, and the Mughals- dominated the Middle East and the South Asian subcontinent

• the Ottoman Empire-managed to impose its rule over much of eastern

  Europe and achieve a dominant position in the Mediterra- nean world.

• Under Murad's successor, Bayazid (by-uh-ZEED) I (1389-

  1402), the Ottomans advanced northward, annexed Bulgaria,

  and slaughtered the French cavalry at a major battle on the D a n u b e .

• The last Byzantine em- peror desperately called for help from the Europeans, but only the Genoese came to his defense. With 80,000 troops ranged against only 6,000 to 8,000 defenders, Mehmet laid siege to Constantinople ni 1453. the Byzantine emperor died in the final battle

the advance into western asia and africa

• With their new capital at Constantinople, renamed Istanbul, the Ottoman Turks had become a dominant force in the Balkans and the Anatolian peninsula.

• They now began to advance to the east against the Shi'ite kingdom of the Safavids

• After defeating the Safavids at a major batle in 1514, Emperor Selim con- solidated Turkish control over Mesopotamia and then turned his attention to hte Mamluks in Egypt,

• administer their conquered regions through local rulers. The central government utilized appointed pashas who were directly responsible to Istanbul; the pashas collected taxes, paying a fixed percentage as tribute to the central government, and maintained law and order.

Turkish expansion in europe

• After their conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Turks tried to complete their conquest of hte Balkans, where they had been established since the fourteenth century.

• Suleyman 1 st Magnificent however, brought the Turks back to Europe's attention. Advancing up the Danube, the Turks seized Belgrade ni 1521 and won amajor victory over hte Hungarians at the Batle of Mohács

Suleiman the magnificent

• ottoman empire enjoyed a golden age under sultan Suleiman who ruled from 1520-1566

• A brilliant general, Suleiman modernized the army and conquered many new lands.

• He extended Ottoman rule east ward into the Middle East, and also into Kurdistan and Georgia in the Caucasus Mountain region.

• In 1529, his armies besieged the Austrian city of Vienna, sending fear through Western Europe.

Rise of ottoman turks

• The first to appear were the Seljuk Turks, who initially attempted to revive the declining Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad.

• Turks served as warriors or admin- istrators, while the peasants who tilled the farmland were mainly Greek.

• nI the late thirteenth century, a new group of Turks under the tribal leader Osman began to consolidate power. That land had been given to them by the Seljuk rulers as a reward for helping drive out the Mongols ni the late thirteenth century.

• Seljuk empire began to crumble in the early fourteenth century, the Osman Turks began to expand and founded the Osmanli

  dynasty, with its capital at Bursa. The Osmanlis later came to be known as the Ottomans.

• The Byzantines, however, had been severely weakened. In 1345, Ottoman forces under their leader Orkhan crossed the Bosporus for the first time to support a usurper against the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople.

• Turkish forces expanded gradually into the Ba-l kans

• he began to build up a strong military administration based on the recruitment of Christians into an elite guard. Called Janissaries they were recruited from the local Christian population in the Balkans and then converted to Islam and trained as foot soldiers or administrators.

Ottoman culture

• He strengthened the government of the rapidly growing empire and improved its system of justice.

• sultan, Suleiman had absolute power, but he ruled with the help of a grand vizier and a council.

• Ottoman law was based on the Sharia, supplemented by royal edicts. Government officials worked closely with religious scholars who

  interpreted the law.

Society is organized into classes

• At the top were "men of the sword"-soldiers who guarded the sultan and defended the state-and "men of the pen"-scientists, lawyers, judges, and poets.

• Below them were "men of negotiation," such as merchants, tax collectors, and artisans who carried out trade and production.

• Finally, there were "men of husbandry," or farmers and herders who produced food for the community.

• These included Muslims, Greek Christians, Armenian Christians, and Jews. Each millet had its own leaders who were responsible

  for education and some legal matters.

Janizaries-The elite force

• The Ottomans levied a "tax" on Christian families in the Balkans, requiring them to turn over their young sons for government service.

• The boys were converted to Islam and put into rigorous military training at the palace school.

• The best soldiers won a prized place in the janizaries the elite force of the Ottoman army.

• The brightest students received special educa- tion to become

  government officials.

• Like the boys, non-Muslim girls from eastern Europe served as slaves in wealthy Muslim households.

Literature and the Arts

• The arts blossomed under Suleiman. Ottoman poets adapted Persian and Arab models to produce works in Turkish.

• The royal architect Sinan, a janizary military engineer, designed

  dreds of mosques and palaces.

Decline of the ottomans

• After Suleiman's death in 1566, the Ottoman empire began a slow decline.

• Suleiman had killed two of his most able sons because he suspected them of treason

• His son and successor Selim II left most of the governing to his ministers, and government bureaucracy became corrupt.

• Russia and other European powers captured Ottoman lands, while local rulers in North Africa and elsewhere broke away from Ottoman control.

The Safavid Empire

• by early 1500s the Safavid dynasty had united an empire in persia.

• Religion played a role in the conflict. The Safavids were Shite Muslims who enforced their beliefs in their empire. The Ottomans were Sunni Muslims who despised the Shiites as heretics.

Abbas the great

• The Safavid king was called the shah.The best- known, Shah Abbas the Great, revived the glory of ancient Persia.

• From 1588 to 1629, he centralized the government and created a powerful military force modeled on the Ottoman janizaries.

• To strengthen the economy, Abbas reduced taxes on farmers and herd- ers and encouraged the growth of industry.

• He built a new capital at Isfahan, which became a center of the international silk trade.

The safavid Empire Declines

• Safavid glory slowly faded after the death of Shah Abbas and under continuing pressure from Ottoman armies.

• Shiite scholars also challenged the authority of the shah by stressing their own authority to interpret law and determine government policy.

• In the late 1700s, anew dynasty, theQajars(kuh JAHRZ), won control of Iran. They made Te h r a n their capital and ruled until 1925. Still, the

  Safavids left a lasting legacy.

China at its Apex

1514 a portuguese fleet dropped anchor off the coast of china, it was first direct contact between China empire and west since arrival of the vientian adventurer Marco Polo 2 cneturies ago

from the Ming to the Qing

• marco polo had reported the magnificence of china after visiting beijing during the reign of khubilai khan the great mongol ruler.

• by time portuguese fleet arrived off the coast of china mongol empire had long since disappeared.

• it was gradually weakened after death of khubilai khan and was finally overthrown in 1368 by rebbelin under the leadership of Zhu yuanzhang who decleared himself the founding empeoror of a new Ming dynasty

• ming inaugurated a period of terrirorial expanson westard into central asia and southward into vietnam while consolidating ocntrol over china’s vast hearland

First contacts with the west

• bellicose and uncultured behavior of portuguese so outraged chinese officials that they expelled the europeans but after futher nagotitations the potuguese were permitted to occupy the tiny terttory of macao—— what behaviors?

• direct trade betweeen europe and china was limited and portuguese ships became involved in regional trade network, carrying silk from china to japan in return for japanese silver

• spanish also began to participate using the philippines as an anchor in the galleon trade between china and the great silber mines in the ameircas

• among most active and most efective were highy educated jesuits who were familiar with european philosopical and sicientific developments.

• court officials were pariculry impressed by cisitors ability to predict the exact time of solar ecalipse

• european inovetions such as clock and prism and various astronomical and musica instruments impressed chinese officials

the art of printing

• italian jesuit matteo riccie who arrived in china in 1601 expressed a keen interest in chinese printing methods.

• later chrstian missionaries expressed strong interest in confucial philosophy and chinese ideas of statecraft

• reports of their experineces heightened europeans curiosity about the great society on the other side of the world.

• by 17th century european philosophers and political thinkers had begun to prise chinese civilizations and to hold up confucian institutions and vlaues

the ming brought to earth

• during 16th century ming began decline as a series of weak rulers, this led to corruption, concertration on land ownership, peasant rebellions.

• caused inflation, allowed interantional trade with silver and they had vmany silver

• arrival of english and dutch whose ships preyed on the spanish galleon trade between Asia and americas disrupted silver trade.

• early 17th century and resulting scarcity made it difficult for the governemnt ot provide food in times of imminent starvation

• ming dynasty tries to manage norther forntier where internal issues were compunded by external threats. ming attempted to control the fontier tibes such as Manchus by using stategies like forming alliances, arranging marriges( marrying member of ming ruling family to local tribe leaders) giving these tribes spectial trading rights.

• at first manchus were satisfied with consolidating their terittory and made little effort to extend their rule south of the great wall.

• major epidemic devastated the population

• suffering brought on by epidemic helped spark peasant revolt led by li zicheng who was a postal worker in central china

• in 1630s li managed to extend the revolt thoughout the country and his forces occupied the capotal beijing 1644. last ming emperor committed suicide

• li was unable to hold his conquest

• the overthrow of ming dynasty presented a great temptation to manchus with the assistance of military commanders manchus seized beijing

• manchus declared a new dynasty Qing

The greatness of the Qing

• they imposed harsh policies and showed little regard for traditional chinese custums, which led to unrest in population.

• some ming loyalsts fled the country while others resisted new rule.

• notable figure among loyalksts was Koxinga who fled to Taiwan with his followers.

• Qing forces captured taiwan in 1683 incororating it into chinese empire.

• in order to suppress rebellion the qing governemnt imposed strict cultural changes including requring men to adopt manchu hairstyle

• who refused were executied

• msnchus eventually adapted to chinese political systems and traditions

• early qing dynasty was also fortunate to have strong rulers such as kangxi and qianlong who brought stability .

banners (military reform)

to protect china, function of protectied layed on manchus

dyarchy

study

The reign of kangxi

• 1661-1722, cosidered one of the greatest rulers in chinese history.

• he took control of Qing dynasty while he was teen

• he stabilized china by pacifying unrest on the nortern and western frontiers, and made qing dynasty more accaptble to generla population

• he was also patron of the arts and letter earning support of scholars

• he was tolorant to western missionaries including dominicans, francisans and jesuits

• he was open mindied to Christianity, 300,000 chinese converted to christianity

• internal conflic weakened the christian missions.

• jesuits had adapted to chinese culture by allowing practices.

• after kangxi’s death his successor began to supress chritian activities in china

The reign of qianlong

• known for dedication, tolorance and intellectual curisoty

• marked by military campaigns to maintain control pver unruly frontier tibes

• promoted economic prosterity

• Qing military campaigns wee costly and drained the imperial treasury. and qianlong aged his ability to select competent officials declined and corrupt figures likr Manchu official heshen gained influence

• they embezzled funds meant for military

• this issue culminated in the white Louts rebbelion a peasant uprising in central china that erupted due to discontent with governments relocation of peasant to inferile land. rebbelion suppressing costed a lot

Qing politics

• emperor kanxi oublicly studied confucian classics and issued a sacred edict that highlited the importance of confucian morals thoughtout empire

• manchus were ethically and lingustically and culturally distict from majority of chinese population

• to fix this they implemented 2 part strategy

• first they proteded their unique identity by legally defining the manchus as a seperate gourp

• manchu nobles retained aristocratic privleges were given farmland and organized into 8 military units called banners,

• bannermen formed the empires primary fighting force

• they esablished system called dyarchy, which ensured that all important administative positions were shared equally between manuch and chinese

• over time manchus became increasingly assimilated into chinese culture

Spanish power grows

• spanish emerged as first moder euroepan power.

• Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand had unified the country, enforced religious unity, and commanded the Spanish conquest of the Americas

charles V unherits 2 crowns

In 1516, Ferdinand and Isabella's grandson, Charles I, became king of Spain, and thereby ruler of the Spanish colonies in the Americas as well

• When his other grandfatherdied in 1519, Charles I also became heir to the sprawling Hapsbugr empire, which included the Holy Roman Empire and the Netherlands. As ruler of this empire, Charles took the name C h a r l e s V.

• As a devout Catholic, he fought to suppress Protestantism in the Ger-

  man states. After years of religious conflict, however, Charles was

  forced to allow the German princes to choose their own religion.

• Charles also faced the Muslim Ottoman empire, which was

  based in Turkey but stretched across the Balkans. Ottoman naval forces also continued to challenge Spanish power in the Mediterranean.

charles V abdicates

• The Hapsburg empire proved to be too scattered and cumbersome for any one person to rule effectively. Exhausted charles gave up his title and entered moanstery in 1556

• He divided his empire, leaving the Hapsburg lands in central Europe to his brother Ferdinand, who became Holy Roman emperor. He gave Spain, the Netherlands, some southern Italian states, and Spain's overseas empire to his 29-year-old son Philip, who became Philip I.

philip ii solidifies power

• During his 42-year reign, P h i l i p I I expanded Spanish influence, strengthened the Catholic Church, and made his own power absolute.

• The King's isolated, somber palace outside Madrid, known as the Escorial (es kohr YAHL), reflected his charac- ter. It served as a church, a residence, and a tomb for the royal family.

• To build important alliances—and to pacify potential enemies—he married a total of four times, gaining power and in some cases additional territory.

• War was another useful strategy, to gained him the kingdom of Portugal and established him as the defender of the Roman Catholic Church.

• Like other European rulers, Philip asserted that he ruled by

  divineright.That is, he believed that his authority to rule came directly from God.

battles in the mediterranean and netherlands

• In the Mediterranean, the Ottoman empire continued to pose a threat to European control of the region.

• At the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Spain and its Italian allies soundly defeated an Ottoman fleet off the coast of Greece.

• During the last half of his reign, Philip battled rebels in the Nether- lands. At the time, the region included 17 provinces that are today Bel-

  gium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.

• In 1581, the northern, largely Protestant provinces declared their independence from Spain and became known as the Dutch Netherlands.

• They did not gain official recognition, however, until 1648. The southern, mostly Catholic provinces of the Netherlands remained part of the Spanish Empire.

the armada sails against england

• By the 1580s, Philip saw England's Queen Elizabeth I as his chief Protestant enemy.

• First secretly, then openly, Elizabeth had supported the Dutch against Spain.

• She encouraged English captains such as Francis Drake, known as sea dogs, to plunder Spanish treasure ships and loot Spanish cities in the

  Americas.

• To end English attacks and subdue the Dutch, Philip prepared a huge armada, or fleet, to carry a Spanish invasion force to England.

• In 1588, the Spanish Armada sailed with more than 130ships, 20,000 men, and 2,400 pieces of artillery.

• This prediction did not come to pass. In the English Channel, lumbering Spanish ships were outmaneuvered by the lighter, faster English ships.

an empire declines

• Throughout the 1600s, Spain's strength and prosper- ity decreased. One reason for this decline was that Philip II's successors ruled far less ably than he had.

• Economic problems were also to blame. Costly overseas wars drained wealth out of Spain almost as fast as it came in.

Spain’s golden age

• The century from 1550 to 1650 is often referred to as Spain's Siglo de Oro "golden century," for the brilliance of its arts and literature.

• Among the famous painters of this period was a man called El Greco,

  meaning "the Greek."

• Though not Spanish by birth, El Greco is consid- ered to be a master of Spanish painting.

• He produced haunting religious pictures and striking portraits of Spanish nobles.

• El Greco's use of vibrant colors influenced the work of Diego

  Velázquez court painter to King Philip IV. Velázquez is perhaps best known for his vivid portraits of Spanish royalty.

• Miguel de Cervantes one of the most important writer of Spain’s golden age.

France Under Louis XIV

• for last half of 15th century France enjoyed a period of peace, after driving out the english.

• 1500s rivarly with charles V of Spain and then religious conflict plunged the kingdom

Henry IV restores order

• 1500s france was torn apart by turbulent wars of religion

• from 1560s to 1590 religious wars between the Catholic majority and French Protestants, called Huguenots , tore France apart.

• The worst incident began on St. Bartholomew's Day (a Catholic

  holiday), August 24, 1572. While Huguenot and Catholic nobles were gathered for a royal wedding, a plot by Catholic royals led to the massacre of 3,000 Huguenots.

• In 1589 Huguenot prince inherited the French throne as Henry IV. For four years Henry fought against fierce Catholic opposition to

  gain control of France.

• Finally, to end the conflict, he converted to Catholicism.

• To protect Protestants, however, in 1598 he issued the Edict of Nantes granting the Huguenots religious toleration and other freedoms.

• By building the royal bureaucracy and reducing the influence of nobles, Henry IV laid the foundations on which future French monarchs would build absolute power

Cardinal Richelieu Strengthens Royal authority

• When Henry VI was killed by an assassin in 1610, his nine-year-old son, Louis XIII, inherited the throne.

• 1624, Louis appointed CardRinicalhelieu (ree shul YOO) as his chief

  minister. leader devoted the next 18 years to strengthening the central government.

• Richelieu sought to destroy the power of the Huguenots and nobles

  two groups that did not bow to royal authority.

• Although he allowed the Huguenots to practice their religion, he smashed their walled cities and outlawed their armies.

• Richelieu tied the nobles to the king by giving them high posts at court or in the royal army.

• Richelieu also handpicked his able successor, Cardinal Mazarin

An Absolute Monarch Rises

• Soon after Louis XIV became king, disorder again swept France.

• In an uprising called the Fronde, nobles, merchants, peasants, and the urban poor each rebelled in order to pro- test royal power or preserve their own.

• On one occasion, rioters drove the boy king from his palace.

• When Mazarin died in 1661, the 23-year-old Louis resolved to take complete control over the government himself.

I am the state

• Like his great-grandfather Philip I of Spain, Louis XIV firmly believed in his divine right to rule.

• He took the sun as the symbol of his absolute power.

• During his reign, Louis did not once call a meeting of the Estates General, the medieval council made up of representatives of all French social classes

• 1614 and 1789. Thus, the Estates General played no role in checking royal power.

Louis XIV strengthens royal power

• To strengthen the state, he followed the policies of Richelieu.

• He expanded the bureaucracy and appointed intendants, royal officials who collected taxes, recruited soldiers, and carried out his policies in the provinces.

• These and other government jobs often went to wealthy middle-class men.

• The king also built the French army into the strongest in Europe.

Colbert Builds France’s Finances

• Louis's brilliant finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, imposed mercantilist policies to bolster the economy.

• He had new lands cleared for farming, encouraged mining and other basic industries, and built up luxury trades such as lacemaking. To protect French manufacturers, Colbert put high tariffs on imported goods.

• Colbert's policies helped make France the wealthiest state in Europe.

Versailles: symbol of royal power

• In the countryside near Paris, Louis XIV turned a royal hunting lodge into the immense palace of Versailles

• Versailles became the perfect symbol of the Sun King's wealth and power.

Conducting Court ceremonies

• Each day began in the king's bedroom with a major ritual known as the Levee or rising. High-ranking nobles competed for the honor of holding the royal washbasin or handing the king his diamond-buckled shoes.

• French nobles were descendants of the feudal lords who

  held power in medieval times.

Patronizing the arts

• The age of Louis XIV came to be known as the classical age of French drama. In painting, music, architecture, and decorative arts, French styles became the model for all Europe.

• As a leading patron of culture, Louis sponsored the French Academies, which set high standards for both the arts and the sciences.

A strong state declines

• Louis XIV ruled France for 72 years-far longer than any other monarch.

• some of louis’s decisions eventually caused France’s prsperity to erode

1. Waging costly wars: Louis XIV poured vast resources into wars meant to expand French borders.

2. In 1700, Louis's grandson Philip V inherited the throne of Spain. To maintain the balance of power, neighboring nations led by England

   fought to prevent the union of France and Spain.

Persecuting Huguenots

• Louis saw France's Protestant minority as a threat to religious and political unity.

• In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes. More than 100,000 Huguenots fled France, settling mainly in England, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, and the Americas.

The search for spices

The European sailors of the 1400s began a dramatic new period of exploration

Motivations for exploring the seas

• Europeans traded with Asians long before the Renaissance.

• Crusades introduced Europeans to many luxury goods from Asia, carried on complex overland routes through the Mongol empire of

  the 1200s and 1300s.

• The Black Death and the breakup of the Mongol empire disrupted that trade.

• The most valued items were spices, used to preserve food, add flavor to meat, and make medicines and perfumes.

• The chief source of spices was the Moluccas, an island chain in present-day Indonesia, which Europeans then called the Spice Islands.

• In the 1400s, Arab and Italian merchants controlled most trade

  between Asia and Europe.

• Muslim traders brought prized goods to eastern Mediterranean ports, and Italian traders carried them to European markets.

Portugal sails east

• Prince Henry led the way in sponsoring exploration for Portugal.

• claimed the Madeira and Azores islands to the west and southwest of Portugal.

• By 1415, Portugal had expanded into Muslim North Africa, seizing the port of Ceuta on the North African coast.

• The Portuguese could convert the Africans—who practiced either Islam or tribal religions-to Christianity.

• Prince Henry hoped to find an easier way to reach Asia, which meant

  going around Africa.

• southern Portugal, Henry gathered scientists, cartographers, or map- makers, and other experts. They redesigned ships, prepared maps, and trained captains and crews for long voyages.

• Henry died in 1460, but the Portuguese continued their quest.

• In 1488, Bartholomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa. Despite the turbulent seas around it, the tip became known as the Cape of Good Hope because it opened the way for a sea route to Asia.

Seeking India

• In 1497, Portuguese navigator Vasco de Gama followed in Dias's footsteps, leading four ships around the Cape of Good Hope.

• After a ten-month voyage, da Gama reached the great spice port of Calicut on the west coast of India.

• On the long voyage home, the Portuguese lost half their ships, and

  many sailors died of hunger, thirst, and scurvy, a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet.

• da Gama had acquired a cargo of spices that he sold at an enormous profit. He quickly outfitted a new fleet, seeking greater profits.

• Portuguese had seized key ports around the Indian Ocean, creating a vast trading empire. Da Gama's voyages confirmed Portugal's status as a world power.

Columbus sails west

• An Italian navigator from Genoa, named ChristopherColumbus, wanted to reach the East Indies-a group of islands in Southeast Asia, today part of Indonesi.

• by sailing west across the Atlantic.His plan made sense, but Columbus greatly underestimated Earth's size. And he had no idea that two

  continents lay in his path.

• Portugal refused to sponsor him, but Columbus persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to finance his voyage.

• To increase their authority, the Spanish rulers had taken radical measures, including expelling Jews from Spain

• However, the loss of some of Spain's most affluent and cultured people weakened the nation. The rulers hoped Columbus's voyage would bring wealth and prestige.

• On August 3, 1492, Columbus sailed west with three small ships, Finally,

  on October 12, land was spotted.

• October 12, land was spotted. Columbus spent several months cruising the islands of the Caribbean. Because he thought he had reached the Indies

• Before long, though, other Europeans realized that Columbus had found a route to previously unknown continents.

Dividing the globe in half

• 1493 Ferdinand and Isabella appealed to the Spanish-born Pope Alexander VI to support their claim to the lands of the new world.

• The pope set a Line of Demarcation, dividing the non-European world into two zones.

• Spain had trading and exploration rights in any lands west of the line. Portugal had the same rights east of the line.

• Line of Demarcation were agreed to in the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed between the two countries in 1494.

Naming the western hemisphere

• An Italian sea captain named Amerigo Vespucci wrote a journal describing his voyage to Brazil.

• 1507, a German cartographer named Martin Waldseemüller used Vespucci's descriptions of his voyage to publish a map of the region, which he labeled "America." Over time

• The islands Columbus had explored in the Caribbean became known as the West Indies.

the search for direct route continues

• The islands Columbus had explored in the Caribbean became known as the West Indies.

• On September 20, 1519, a minor Portuguese nobleman named Ferdinand Magellan set out from Spain with five ships to find a way to reach the Pacific.

• his fleet reached the coast of South America. Carefully, they explored each bay, hoping to find one that would lead to the Pacific.

• Magellan found a passage that later became known as the Strait of Magellan. The ships emerged into Balboa's South Sea. Magellan renamed the sea the Pacific, from the Latin word meaning

  peaceful.

• Magellan, however, insisted that they push on across the Pacific to the East Indies. Magellan underestimated the size of the Pacific. Three more weeks, he thought, would bring them to the Spice Islands. Magellan was wrong. For nearly four months.

• Finally, in March 1521, the fleet reached the Philippines, where Magellan

  was killed. On September 8, 1522, nearly three years after setting out, the survivors- one ship and 18 sailors-reached Spain.

• The survivors had been the first people to circumnavigate, or sail around, the world.

Conquests in the Americas

• in 1491 explorer christoper columbus landed in the caribbean islands that now are called west indies. the wave of exploration he squrred in the americas would have drastic consequences for people who already lived there

first encounters in the americas

• When Columbus first arrived in the West Indies, he encountered the Taíno people.

• The Taínos lived in villages and grew corn, yams, and cotton, which they wove into cloth. They were friendly and open toward the Spanish.

• The Taínos offended the Spanish when out of ignorance they failed to pay proper respect to Christian symbols.

• columbus actions showed that he felt superior to the tainos and could therefore decisde their fate. he claimed their land for spain and took several tainos as prisoners to take back to spanish king.

• the Spanis forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.

Guns horses and disease

• Although Spanish conquistadors only numbered in the hundreds as compared to millions of Native Americans, they had many advantages.

• Their guns and cannons were superior to the Native Americans' arrows and spears, and European metal armor vided them with better protection. They also had horses, which not only were useful in battle and in carrying supplies, but also frightened the Native Americans, who had never seen a horse.

• Most importantly, an invisible invader-disease-helped the conquis- tadors take control of the Taínos and other Native Americans. Europeans unknowingly carried diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza to which Native Americans had noimmunity,or resistance.

• As a result, the Native American population of the Caribbean islands declined by as much as 90 percent in the 1500s. Millions of Native Americans died from disease as Europeans made their way inland.

Cortes conquers mexico

• Among the earliest conquistadors was HernánCortés. Cortés, a landowner in Cuba, heard of Spanish expeditions that had been repelled by Indians.

• In 1519, he landed on the coast of Mexico with about 600 men, 16 horses, and a few cannons.

• He began an inland trek toward Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec empire.

• A young Indian woman named M a l i n c h e. Malinche knew both the Maya and Aztec languages, and she learned Spanish quickly.

• Malinche told cortes that aztecs had gained power by conquering other groups of peopel.the aztecs sacrificed thousands of their captives to the aztecs gods each year. many qonqered people hated their aztec overlords so malicnhe helped cortes arrange alliance iwth them.

Moctezuma faces dilemma

• messengers brought word about the Spanish to the Aztec emperor Moctezuma.

• Terrified, he wondered if the leader of the pale-skinned, bearded strangers might be Quetzalcoatl, an Aztec god-king who had long ago vowed to return from the east.

• he sent gifts of turquoise, feathers and other goods with religious importance but urged with strangers not to continue to tenochitlan.

• Cortés, however, had no intention of turning back. He was not interested in the Aztec religious objects, but was extremely interested in the gold and silver ornaments that moctezuma began sending him.

Tenochititlan falls to the spanish

• Cortés, however, had no intention of turning back. He was not interested in the Aztec religious objects, but was extremely interested in the gold

• They decided to imprison Moctezuma so they could gain control of the Aztecs and their riches.

• Cortés compelled Moctezuma to sign over his land and treasure to the Spanish. In the meantime, a new force of Spanish conquistadors had arrived on the coast to challenge Cortés.

• he Aztecs drove the Spanish from the city. More than half of the Spanish were killed in the fighting, as was Moctezuma.

• In 1521, in a brutal struggle, Cortés and his Indian allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlán. The Spanish later built Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlán.

Pizarro takes peru

• Cortes success inspired other adventurers among themm spaniard Fransciso Pizarro.

• Pizarro was interested in Peru's Inca empire, which was reputed to have even more riches than the Aztecs.

• Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1532, just after the Incan ruler Atahualpa.Atahualpa refused to become a Spanish vassal or convert to Christianity. In rdesponse, Pizarro, aided by indian allies captured him and slaughtered thousands of inca

• the spanish demanded a hughe ransom for the rler. the inca paid it but spanish killed atauhapla anyway.

• he had good weapons and inca was weakened by european diseases.

effects of the spanish conquistadors

• The Spanish had seized huge quantities of valuable goods. And they had used Native American labor to establish silver mines in Peru and Mexico to finance their new empire.

• In the 1500s and early 1600s, treasure fleets sailed each year to Spain or the Spanish Philip- pines loaded with gold and silver. With this wealth, Spain became Europe's greatest power.

• As tens of thousands of Indians died, some of the bewildered and demoralized survivors felt that their gods were less powerful than the god of their conquerors. They therefore stopped resisting. Many Native Americans converted to Christianity in the hopes that their suffering would end.

• For centuries, the Maya fought Spanish rule in Mexico and Central America.

Indian ocean trade

• It spread from china all the way to east africa, largest marital trading route until 1500

• -Traded not only luxury like silk road, but also more common goods. luxuries were: porcelain (china), spices (south east asia), cotton/paper (india), ivory/gold (africa).common goods were:rice, wheat, sugar.

• Monsoon winds were essencial. 

• New technological and economical advances(compass,junks,astrolabe).

• Arab sailors used sailing technology to aid their travel. Arab sailors invented the triangular lateen sails that they used, but the sails were popular because it easily catch winds coming from many different directions. Chinese sailors during the classical period had invented the stern rudder, which gave their ships more stability and made them easier to maneuver.

• The Indian Ocean trading network fostered the growth of states. Swahili Coast

• A narrow strip of land that stretches along the eastern edge of Africa from Somalia in the north to Mozambique in the south. Blending of arabs(muslims that were often trading) with local bantus, results in emerging of new culture and language(swahili). -Overall large diaspora community of arabic and persian merchants on the coast.

• Ming Admiral Zheng He (chinese,muslim,admiral,explorer) was sent by ming emperor to re-establish tributary states. Basically regions around chinahad to sent tribute to not be invaded by china.

• A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. it seasonally reverses its direction—such as one that blows for approximately six months from the northeast and six months from the southwest. The most prominent monsoons occur in South Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Pacific coast of Central America.

Trans-saharan tarde routes

• Camel saddles are an important tool for merchants, as they use them to ride their camels and to carry supplies and other equipment. Camel saddles are typically made of leather or other durable materials and are designed to be comfortable for both the rider and the camel. They often have a high, padded cantle to provide support for the rider and a large horn or pommel at the front of the saddle to provide a handhold. Camel saddles made it much easier to travel, and thus trans-Saharan trade flourished, carrying salt, gold, slaves, and cowrie shells.

• A caravan is a group of people traveling together, typically on a long journey. Caravans

  have been used for centuries as a means of transportation and as a way to protect against bandits and other dangers.

• Innovations in commercial practices and technology made the journey quicker and safer. Trans-Saharan trade rapidly increased after the introduction of camels from Central Asia to North Africa.

• trade credit and money would often be exchanged rather than trading goods for goods. The compass was invented which ensured that most merchants would not get lost during the long voyage.

• . The Mali Empire was located along major trans-Saharan trade routes and played a significant role in facilitating the trade of gold, salt, and other goods between West Africa and the Mediterranean. The empire was known for its rich deposits of gold, which were a major contributor to its wealth and power.

• For example, during the height of the Mali Empire, the kingdom controlled much of the trans-Saharan trade, which involved the exchange of goods such as gold, salt, ivory, and slaves between West Africa and the Mediterranean world. The empire's capital, Timbuktu, became a center of trade and scholarship, attracting merchants and scholars from across the region and beyond.

• The expansion of the Mali Empire also facilitated the spread of Islam, which became the dominant religion in West Africa

Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

▪The influence of Buddhism in East Asia

Buddhism came to China from its birthplace in India via the Silk Roads, and the 7th-century Buddhist monk Xuanzang helped make it popular. Buddhist doctrines fused with elements of Daoist traditions to create the Chan Buddhism, also known as Zen Buddhism. Although some leaders in China did not want China’s native religions diminished as a result of the spread of Buddhism, Chan Buddhism remained popular among ordinary Chinese citizens.

Through trade, the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism made their way to Southeast Asia as well. The sea-based Srivijaya Empire on Sumatra was a Hindu kingdom, while the later Majapahit Kingdom on Java was Buddhist

Africa

• Swahili language is a blend of Bantu and Arabic and is still widely spoken today.

 • Timbuktu became a center of Islamic learning.

• Leaders of African states deepened Islamic ties through pilgrimages to Mecca.

South Asia

. • After Islam arrived, Buddhists converted more readily than Hindus because they were disillusioned by the corruption among Buddhist priests. With its emphasis on equality, Islam also attracted lower-caste Hindus.

• Architecture blended Hindu designs with Islamic patterns.

• Urdu language had influences from Sanskrit-based Hindi, as well as from Arabic and Farsi, a Persian language.

Southeast Asia

• Muslim rulers on Java combined Mughal Indian features, local traditions, and Chinese-Buddhist and Confucian traits.

 • Traditional Javanese stories, puppetry, and poetry absorbed Muslim characters and techniques

▪Gunpowder from China

The military innovation that occurred within China because of the gunpowder allowed China to have a stronger and more advanced military, leading to an overall safer country. The movement of gunpowder into this part of the world was facilitated by the Mongol invasions of China, India, Persia, and Egypt. When the Mongols invaded China in the early 12th century, they were able to gain knowledge of gunpowder and the Chinese military technologies that employed it.

Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the americas

Ruling the spanish empire

• by mid 1500s spain claimed area from california to south america.

• spain wanted strict control over its empire so king set up the council of indies to pass laws for colonies

• he appointed Viceroys or representatives who ruled in his name in each province.

• for Spain winning souls for christianity was as impotant. catholic church worked with government to convert native americans to christainity.

• Church leaders often served as royal officials and helped to regulate the activities of Spanish settlers.

• They also introduced European clothing, the Spanish language, and new crafts such as carpentry and locksmithing.

• Where they could, the Spanish missionaries forcibly imposed European culture over Native American culture.

controlling trade

• The most valuable resources shipped from Spanish America to Spain were silver and gold

• Colonists could export raw materials only to Spain and could buy only Spanish manufactured goods. Laws forbade colonists from trading with other European nations or even with other Spanish colonies.

• When sugar cane was introduced into the West Indies and elsewhere, it quickly became a profitable resource. The cane was refined into sugar, molasses, and rum

• At first, Spanish monarchs granted the conquistadors encomiendas

  the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area.

• The conquistadors used this system to force Native Americans

  to w o r k under the most brutal conditions. Those who resisted were

  hunted down and killed.

• Disease, starvation, and cruel treatment caused drastic declines in the Native American population.

Spanish priest speaks out

• A few bold priests, like Bartoloméde Las Casas , condemned the evils of the encomienda system.

• Las Casas detailed the horrors that Spanish rule had brought to Native Americans and pleaded with the king to end the abuse.

• Prodded by Las Casas, Spain passed the New Laws of the Indies in

  1542. The laws forbade enslavement and abuse of Native Americans, but Spain was too far away to enforce them.

• To fill the labor shortage, Las Casas urged colonists to import workers from Africa. He believed that Africans

  were immune to tropical diseases and had skills in farming, mining, and metalworking.

• Las Casas later regretted that advice because it furthered the brutal African slave trade. The Spanish began bringing Africans to the Americas as slave laborers by the 1530s.

• peonage: labor in a condition of servitude to extinguish a debt. the holding of any person to service or labor under the system known as peonage is abolished and forever prohibited U.S. Code.

colonial society and culture

• Settlers learned Native American styles of building, ate

  foods native to the Americas, and traveled in Indian-style canoes. Indian artistic styles influenced the newcomers.

• They also introduced animals, especially the horse, thereby transforming the lives of many Native Americans. Africans contributed to this cultural mix with their farming methods, cooking styles, and crops. African drama, dance, and song heightened Christian services.

A layered society

• Spanish colonial society was made up of distinct social classes. At the top were peninsulares people born in Spain. Peninsulares filled the highest positions in both colonial governments and the Catholic Church.

• Next came c r e o l e s , American-born descendants of Spanish settlers. Creoles owned most of the plantations, ranches, and mines.

• Lower social groups reflected the mixing of populations. They includedm e s t i z o s , people of Native American and European descent, and mulattoes,people of African and European descent.

• peninsulares

• creoles

• estizos

• mullattoes

cities

• panish settlers generally lived 'in towns and cities. The population of Mexico City grew so quickly that by 1550 it was the largest Spanish-speaking city in the world.

• Cities were also centers of intellectual and cultural

  life. Architecture and painting, as well as poetry and the exchange of ideas, flourished in Spanish cities in the Americas.

• plaza

education

• To meet the Church's need for educated priests, the colonies built universities. The University of Mexico was established as early as 1551. A dozen Spanish American universities were already educating young men long before Harvard was founded in 1636 as the first college in the 13 English colonies.

• Women wishing an education might enter a convent. One such woman was Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Refused admission to the University of Mexico because she was female, Juana entered a convent at around the age of 18.

• There, she devoted herself to study and the writing of poetry. She earned a reputation as one of the greatest poets ever to write in the Spanish language.

The Portuguese colony in brazil

• By the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal claimed its empire in the east, Brazil

• As in the Spanish empire, the Native Americans who lived in Brazil the Tupian Indians had been largely wiped out by disease

• Unlike Spain's American colonies, Brazil offered no instant wealth from silver or gold. However, early settlers cut and exported brazilwood.

• The Portuguese named the colony after this wood, which was used to produce a valuable dye.

• Like the Spanish, the Portuguese forced Indians and Africans to clear land for plantations. As many as four million Africans were sent to Brazil. As in Spanish America, a new culture emerged in Brazil that blended European, Native american and african elements.

challenging portugal and spain

• the 1500s, the wealth of the Americas helped make Spain the most powerful country in Europe, with Portugal not far behind.

• To get around those countries' strict control over colonial trade, smugglers traded illegally with Portuguese and Spanish colonists. In the Caribbean and elsewhere, Dutch, English, and French pirates preyed on treasure ships from the Americas.

• Some pirates, called privateers, even operated with the approval of European governments.

struggle for the north America

• in the 1600s, France, the Netherlands, England, and Sweden joined Spain in settling North America.

• by 1700s France and England controlled large parts of North America

Building New France

• 1600s french had occupied nearly half of North America

• French Claims in Canada-which the French called New France.

• in 1534 Jacques Cartier began exploring the coastline of eastern Canada, discovering Lawrence river. he claimed much of eastern Canada for France.

Furs, Trapping and Fishing

• French explores and fur traders gradually traveled inland.

• France's American empire reached from Quebec to the Great Lakes and

  down the Mississippi River to Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico.

• The first permanent French settlement was not established until 1608, when Samuel de Champlain established a colony in Quebec.

• Canadian climate, with its long winters, attracted few French peasants.

• Many who went to New France soon abandoned farming in favor of the more profitable fur trapping and trading.

An empire slowly expands

• In the late 1600s, the French king Louis XIV set out to strengthen royal power and boost revenues, or income, from taxes from his overseas empire.

• he appointed officials to oversee economic activities in New France.

• He also sent soldiers and more settlers-including women—to North America.

• Louis, however, who was Catholic, prohibited Protestants from settling in New France.

The 13 English Colonies

• In 1497 a venetian navigator known as john Cabot found rich fishing grounds off Newfoundland, which he claimed for England.

• In the 1600s, England concentrated on establishing colonies along the Atlantic seaboard-the coast of the present-day eastern United States.

• The English built their first permanent colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.

• Although the colony was meant to bring wealth and profit, in the early years of the colony many settlers died of starvation and disease.

• settlers started to grow and export tobacco, a plant that had been culti- vated by Native Americans for thousands of years.

→ In 1620, another group of English settlers landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts. They were P i l g r i m s , or English Protestants who rejected the Church of England ←

• They sought religious freedom rather than commercial profit.

Before coming ashore, they signed the Mayflower Compact, in which they set out guidelines for governing their North American colony. A compact is an agreement among people. Today, we see this document as an important early step toward self-government.

In the 1600s and 1700s, the English established a total of 13 colonies.

• Settlers in all of the colonies spent the early years just struggling to survive. They quickly abandoned dreams of finding riches like the Spanish gold and silver.

• However, over time they learned to create wealth by using the resources native to their surroundings.

• In New England, prosperous fishing, timber, and shipbuilding industries grew.

• In the South, colonists found that cash crops such as rice and tobacco grew well in the warm climate

Governing the colonies

• Like the rulers of Spain and France, English monarchs asserted control over their American colonies. They appointed royal governors to oversee colonial affairs and had Parliament pass laws to regulate

  colonial trade.

• Each colony had its own representative assembly, elected by propertied men, that advised the governor and made decisions on local issues.

struggling for the power

• Native Americans throughout the colonies entered the conflict, hoping to play the Europeans against one another. Competition was also fierce in the Caribbean, as European nations fought to acquire the profitable sugar-producing colonies.

• During the 1700s, Britain and France emerged as powerful rivals. They clashed in Europe North America, Africa, and Asia.

• In North America, war between the two powers erupted in 1754. Called the French and Indian War, it raged until 1763.

• It also turned into a worldwide struggle known as the Seven Years' War, which spread to Europe in 1756 and then to India and Africa.

During the war, British soldiers and colonial troops launched a series of campaigns against the French in Canada and on the Ohio frontier. At first, France won several victories. Then, in 1759, British troops launched an attack on Quebec, the capital of New France. The British scaled scaled steep cliffs along the river and captured the city.

The 1763 Treaty of Paris officially ended the worldwide war and ensured British dominance in North America ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ←

Chapter 17 Enlightenment

Scientific revolution sparks enlightenment.

• scientific revolution of 1500s and 1600s transformed Europe.

• 1700s Edward Jenner developed a vaccine against smallpox.

• Natural Law: rules discoverable by reason.

Hobbes and Locke have conflicting views

Hobbes believes in Powerful Government:

he argued that people were naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish. if not strictly controlled they would fight, rob, and oppress one another. to escape this people entered into a social contract → an agreement by which they gave up their freedom for an organized society. for him government was absolute monarchy, which could impose order

Locke advocates Natural Rights:

He thought people were more reasonable and moral. meaning that they had rights such as right to life, liberty, and property. Locke argued that people formed governments to protect their natural rights. best kind of government had limited power and was accepted by people. Lock rejected absolute monarchy. government has obligation and if it fails people have right to overthrow it. Locke’s ideas would one day influence leaders of American Revolution such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison.

The philosophers

• 1700s marked flowering of enlightenment thought. this was when group of Enlightenment thinkers in France applied the methods of science to understand an improve society.

Montesquieu Advances the idea os separation of powers

• early thinker Baron de Montesquieu studied the governments of Europe, from Italy to England. His sharp criticism of absolute monarchy. he published a book where he discussed governments throughout the history.

• best way to protect liberty was to divide the various function and powers of government among three branches: executive, legislative and judicial. and should serve as a check on other two → checks and balances

Voltaire defends freedom of thought

• he targeted corrupt officials and idle aristocrats. he battled inequality, injustice, and superstition.

• de detested the slave trade.

• Voltaire’s truth offended both French gov and Catholic Church. he was imprisoned and forced into exile.

Diderot edits the encyclopedia

• Denis Diderot worked to produce encyclopedia, his purpose was to change the general way of thinking, by explaining ideas like gov, religion and philosophy. he talked about voltair and montesquieu.

• French government argued that encyclopedia was attact on public morals, and pope threatened to excommunicate Roman Catholics who bought or read the volumes.

Rousseau promotes the social contract

• Rousseau believed that people in their natural state were good. this state was corrupted by evils of society.

• many reformers and revolutionaries later adopted this view.

• among them was Thomas Paine and Marquise de lafayette leading figures of american and french revolutions.

• he thought society placed too many limitations on people’s behavior.some controls were neccesary but minimal.

• gov freely elected should impose these controls.

Women challenge the philosophes

• enlightement slogan -free and equal did not apply to women. women had natural rights but limited at home and family.

• mid 1700s small growing number of women protested this view.

• Wollstonecraft was a well-known British social critic. She accepted that a woman's first duty was to be a good mother but felt that a woman should be able to decide what was in her own interest without depending on her husband.

• A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In it, she called for equal education for girls and boys. Only education, she argued, could give women the tools they needed to participate equally with men in public life.

New economic thinking

Laissez Faire Replaces Mercantilism Physiocrats rejected mercantilism, which required government regulation of the economy to achieve a favorable balance of trade. Instead, they urged a policy of laissezfaire allowing business to operate with little or no government interference.

Smith Argues for a Free Market: Smith was a strong supporter of laissez faire. However, he felt that government had a duty to protect society, administer justice, and provide public works. Adam Smith's ideas would help to shape productive econo- mies in the 1800s and 1900s.

Enlightenment ideas spread

During the Middle Ages, most Europeans had accepted without question a society based on divine-right rule, a strict class system, and a belief in heavenly reward for earthly suffering. In the Age of Note Taking 550 Reason, such ideas seemed unscientific and irrational.

Writers face censorship

• Most, but not all, government and church authorities felt they had a sacred duty to defend the old order.

• war of censorship, or restricting access to ideas and information. They banned and burned books and imprisoned writers.

• To avoid censorship, philosophes and writers like Montesquieu and Voltaire sometimes disguised their ideas in works of fiction.

Ideas spread in salons

New literature, the arts, science, and philosophy were regular topics of discussion in salons, or informal social gatherings at which writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas.

The salon originated in the 1600s, when a group of noblewomen in Paris began inviting a few friends to their homes for poetry readings.

Madame Geoffrin ran one of the most respected salons. In her home on the Rue St. Honoré, she brought together the brightest and most talented people of her day.

arts and literature reflect new ideas

• In the age of Louis XIV, courtly art and architecture were either in the

  Greek and Roman tradition or in a grand, ornate style known as baroque.

• Baroque paintings were huge, colorful, and full of excitement. They glorified historic battles or the lives of saints. Such works matched the grandeur of European courts at that time.

• Louis XV and his court led a much less formal lifestyle than Louis XIV. Architects and designers reflected this change by developing the rococo style.

• Rococo art in salons was believed to encourage the imagination. Portrait painters showed noble subjects in charming rural settings, surrounded by happy servants and pets.

Baraque → Rococo

The Enlightenment inspires composers

• he new Enlightenment ideals led composers and musicians to develop new forms of music. There was a transition in music, as well as art, from the baroque style to rococo.

• Before this era, only the social elite could afford to commission musicians to play for them. In the early to mid-1700s, however, the growing middle class could afford to pay for concerts to be performed publicly.

Enlightened despots embrace new ideas

• Some monarchs did accept Enlightenment ideas. Others still practiced absolutism,

• Those that did accept these new ideas became enlightened despots, or absolute rulers who used their power to bring about political and social change.

Frederick II attempts reform

• Frederick II, known as Frederick t h e G r e a t , exerted extremely tight control over his subjects during his reign as king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786.

• Frederick openly praised Voltaire's work and invited several French intellectuals of the age to Prussia. Some of his first acts as king Draw Conclusions According to were to reduce the use of torture and allow a free press.

• Frederick also tolerated religious differences, wel- coming victims of religious persecution. "In my kingdom," he said, "everyone can go to heaven in his own fashion.

Catherine the great studies philosophes’ works

• Catherine II, or Catherinet h eGreat, empress of Russia, read the works of the philosophes and exchanged letters with Voltaire and Diderot.

• Catherine abolished torture and established religious tolerance in her lands.

• Still, like Frederick in Prussia, Catherine did not intend to give up power. In the end, her main political contribution to Russia proved to be an expanded empire.

Joseph II continues reform

In Austria, Hapsburg empress Maria Theresa ruled as an absolute monarch. Although she did not push for reforms, she is considered to be an enlightened despot by some historians because she worked to improve peasants' way of life.

Joseph continued the work of Maria Theresa, who had begun to modernize Austria's government. Despite opposition, Joseph supported reli- gious equality for Protestants and Jews in his Catholic empire.

He ended censorship by allowing a free press and attempted to bring the Catholic Church under royal control.

Birth of the American Republic

Britain becomes a global power

• Location placed England in a position to control trade.

• England offered a climate favorable to business and commerce and put fewer restrictions on trade than some of its neighbors.

• In the 1700s, Britain was generally on the winning side in European conflicts. With the Treaty of Utrecht, France gave Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to Britain.

• England's territory expanded closer to home as well. In 1707, England and Wales were united with Scotland to become the

  United Kingdom of Great Britain. Free trade with Scotland cre- ated a larger market for farmers and manufacturers.

George III began 60-year reign. he choose his own ministers, dissolved the cabinet and made parliament follow his will.

The 13 colonies in the Mid 1700s

By 1750, a string of 13 prosperous colonies stretched along the eastern coast of North America. They were part of Britain's growing empire.

for this trade. Britain applied mercantilist policies to its colonies in an attempt t strengthen its own economy by exporting more than it imported. To this end, in the 1600s, Parliament had passed the Navigation Acts to regulate colonial trade and manufacturing.

Colonists express discontent

T h e seven Years' War and D i s c o n t e n t the French and Indian War in North America had dranied the British treasury.

King George III and his advisors thought that the colonies should help pay for these wars. To increase tax paid by colonists, Parliament passed the Sugar Act in 1764, which imposed import taxes, and the Stamp Actin 1765, which imposed taxes on items such as newspapers. Declaratory Act that said it had complete authority over the colonists.

Colonists rebel against Britain

• In March 1770, British soldiers in Boston opened fire on a crowd that was pelting them with stones and snowballs. Colonists called the death of five protesters the Boston Massacre

• Boston Tea Party. When Parliament passed harsh laws to punish Massachusetts for the destruction of the tea, other colonies rallied to oppose the British response.

• As tensions increased, fighting spread. Finally, representatives from each colony gathered in Philadelphia and met in a Continental Congress to decide what action to take. G e o r g e Washington; and political and social lead- e r s from all 13 colonies.

Colonists declare independence

• In April 1775, the ongoing tension between the colonists and the British exploded into war in Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.

• This war is known as the Revolutionary War, or the American Revolution.

• The Congress met soon after and set up a Continental Army, with George Washington in command.

• ThomasJefferson of Virginia was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, a document that reflects John Locke's ideas of the government's obligation to protect the people's natural rights to "life, liberty, and property."

• The principle of p o p u l a r sovereignty, which states that all government power comes from the people, is also an important point in the Declaration.

About one third of the American colonists were Loyalists, or those who supported Britain.

The Americans lacked military resources, had little money to pay soldiers, and did not have a strategic plan.

Since colonists were fighting on their own soil, they were familiar with its thick woods and inadequate roads.

Other advantages were their strong leader, George Washington, and their fierce determination to fight for their ideals of liberty.

Additionally, the British offered freedom to any enslaved people who were willing to fight the colonists.

France provides support

This victory persuaded France to join the Americans against its old rival, Britain.

Spurred by the French example, the Netherlands and Spain added their support.

Treaty of Paris ends the war

Two years later, American, British, and French diplo- mats signed the Treatyo fParis, ending the war. In that treaty, Britain recognized the independence of the United States of America.

A new constitution

The Articles of Confederation was the nation's first constitution.

It proved to be too weak to rule the new United States effectively. To address this problem, the nation's leaders gathered once more in Philadelphia. Among them were George Washington, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin.

Enlightenment Ideas Have Great Impact

They provided not only for an elective legislature but also for an elected president rather than a hereditary monarch. For the first President, voters would choose George Washington.

The Constitution created a ferdepraulblic, with power divided between the federal, or national, government and the states.

A central feature of the new federal government was the separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, an idea borrowed directly from Montesquieu.

The Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, was important to the passage of the Constitution. It recognized the idea that people had basic rights that the government must protect, such as freedom of religion, speech, and the press.

The French Revolution and Napoleon

• 1789 unrest exploded at paris wallpaper factory.

• rumor had spread that the factory owner was planning to cut

  wages even though bread prices were soaring. Enraged workers vandalized the owner's home.

French society divided

• In 1789, France, like the rest of Europe, still clung to an outdated social system that had emerged in the Middle Ages.

• ancien regime-old order.

3 social classes

1. The Clergy enjoy wealth: 1789, the French clergy still enjoyed enormous wealth and privilege. The Church owned about 10 percent of the land, collected tithes, and paid no direct taxes to the state. The First Estate did provide some social services. Nuns, monks, and priests ran schools, hospitals, and orphanages.But during the Enlightenment, philosophes targeted the Church for reform.

2. Nobles Hold Top Government Jobs: In the Middle Ages, noble knights had defended the land. In the 1600s, Richelieu and Louis XIV had crushed the nobles' military power but had given them other rights-under strict royal control. Those rights included top jobs in government, the army, the courts, and the Church. Many nobles hated absolutism and resented the royal bureaucracy that employed middle-class men in positions that once had been reserves for them.

3. Third Estate Is Vastly Diverse: At the top sat the bourgeoisie, or middle class. The bourgeoisie included prosperous bankers, merchants, and manufacturers, as well as lawyers, doctors, journalists, and professors. The bulk of the Third Estate, however, consisted of rural peasants. Wealthy bourgeois families in the Third Estate could buy political office and even titles, but the best jobs were still reserved for nobles.

Financial Troubles

• Economic woes in France added to the social unrest and heightened tensions.

• deficit spending, This occurs when a government spends more money than it takes in.

National Debt Soars: Louis XIV had left France deeply in debt. The Seven Years War and the American Revolution strained the treasury even further. By 1789, half of the government’s income from taxes went to paying the interest on this enormous debt.to solve the financial crisis, the government would have to increase taxes, reduce expenses, or both.

Economic reform fails: Jaques Necker a financial expert as an advisor. Necker urged the king to reduce extravagant court spending, reform government, and abolish burdensome tariffs on internal trade. When Necker proposed taxing the First and Second Estates, however, the nobles and high clergy forced the king to dismiss him.

Estates-General: legislative body consisting of representatives of three estates.

Louis XVI calls the estates-general

Delegates to the Estates- General from the Third Estate were elected, though only propertied men could vote. Thus, the delegates were mostly lawyers, middle-class officials, and writers.

Parisians storm the bastille

• 1789, the city of Paris seized the spotlight from the National Assembly meeting in Versailles. The streets buzzed with rumors that royal troops were going to occupy the capital.

• More than 800 Parisians assembled outside the Bastille, a grim medieval fortress used as a prison for political and other prisoners.

• The commander of the Bastille refused to open the gates and opened fire on the crowd. In the battle that followed, many people were killed.

• The Bastille was a symbol to the people of France representing years of abuse by the monarchy.

• Since 1880, the French have celebrated Bastille Day annually as their national independence day.

The french revolution unfolds

• National assembly phase (1789-1791) → Constitutional monarchy

• Radical phase ( 1792-1794)

• Directory

• Age of Napoleon

Revolt

n such desperate times, rumors ran wild and set off what was later called the "Great Fear." Tales of attacks on villages and towns spread panic. Other rumors asserted that government troops were seizing peasant crops.

peasants unleashed their fury on nobles who were trying to reimpose medieval dues.

Defiant peasants set fire to old manor records and stole grain from storehouses

A variety of f a c t i o n s , or dissenting groups of people, competed to gain power. Moderates looked to the Marquis de Ladayette , the aristocratic "hero of two worlds" who fought alongside George Washington in the American Revolution.

Lafayette headed the National Guard, a largely middle-class militia organized in response to the arrival of royal troops in Paris.

The Guard was the first group to don the tricolor—a red, white, and blue badge that was eventually adopted as the national flag of France

A more radical group, the Paris Commune, replaced the royalist government of the city.

The National Assembly Acts

• On August 4, in a combative all-night meeting, nobles in the National Assembly voted to end their own privileges.

• They agreed to give up their old manorial dues, exclusive hunting rights, special legal status, and exemption from taxes.

• "Feudalism is abolished," announced the proud and weary delegates at 2 AM.

• National Assembly turned the reforms of August 4 into law, meeting a key Enlightenment goa—l the equality of all male citizens before the law.

• In late August, as a first step toward writing a constitution, the Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

• n 1791, Olympe d e Gouges, a journalist, demanded equal rights in her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. "Woman is born free,"

• Later in the revolution, women met resistance for expressing their views in public, and many, including Gouges, were imprisoned and executed.

• Louis XVI did not want to accept the reforms of the National Assembly.

Women March on Versailles

Much of the crowd's anger was directed at the Austrian-born queen,

MarieAntoinette. The queen lived a life of great pleasure and extravagance, and this led to further public unrest.

The women refused to leave Versailles until the king met their most important demand-to return to Paris. Not too happily, the king agreed.

TheNationalAssemblyPressesOnward

To pay off the huge government debt-much of it owed to the bourgeoisie-the Assembly voted to take over and sell Church lands.

In an even more radical move, the National Assembly put the French Catholic Church under state control. Under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, issued in 1790, bishops and priests became elected, salaried officials. The Civil Constitution ended papal authority over the French Church and dissolved con- vents and monasteries.

The Constitution of 1791 set up a limited monarchy in place of the absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries.

A new Legislative Assembly had the power to make laws, collect taxes, and decide on issues

To make government more efficient, the constitution replaced the old provinces with 83 departments of roughly equal size.

Reflecting Enlightenment goals, it ensured equality before the law for all male citizens and ended Church interference in government.

Edmund Burke - British believed revolution would be more violent.

sufferage

Radicals take over

uropean rul-

ers increased border patrols to stop the spread of the "French plague." Fueling those fears were the horror stories that were told by émigrés nobles, clergy, and others who had fled France and its revolutionary forces.

Even "enlightened" rulers turned The French Revolution and Napoleon against France.

In august 1791, the king of prussia and emperor of austria who was Marie Antonette’s brother issued Declaration of Pilnitz. in this document the two monarchs threatened to intervene to protect the french monarchy.

In October 1791, the newly elected Legislative Assembly took office. lasted less than year.

Uncertainty about prices led to hoarding and caused additional food shortages

In Paris and other cities, working-class men and women, called sans-culottes (sanz koo LAHTS), pushed the revolution into more radical action.

By 1791, many sans-culottes demanded arepublic, or government ruled by elected representatives instead of a monarch.

The sans-culottes found support among radicals in the Legislative Assembly, especially the Jacobins.

A revolutionarypolitical club, the nsobicaJ were mostly middle-class lawyers or intellectuals. They used pamphleteers and sympathetic newspaper editors to advance the republican cause.

Legislative Assembly declared war first on

Austria and then on Prussia, Britain, and other states. The great powers

expected to win an easy victory against France, a

land divided by revolu- tion. In fact, however, the fighting that began in

1792 lasted on and of until 1815.

On August 10, 1792, a crowd of Parisians stormed the royal palace of the Tuileries and slaughtered the king's guards. The royal family fled to the Legislative Assembly, escaping before the mob arrived.

Amonth later, citizens attacked prisons that held nobles and priests accused of political offenses. About 1,200 prisoners were killed; among them were many ordinary criminals. Historians disagree about the people who carried out the "September massacres." Some call them bloodthirsty mobs.

Backed by Paris crowds, radicals then took control of the Assembly.

called for the election of a new legislative body called the National Covention. Suffrage, the right to vote, was to be extended to all malecitizens not just to property owners.

It voted to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic-the French Republic. Deputies then drew up a new constitution for France. The Jacobins, who controlled the Convention, set out to erase all traces of the old order. They seized lands of nobles and abolished titles of nobility.

During the early months of the Republic, the Convention also put Louis XVI on trial as a traitor to France.

Terror and danger Grip france

By early 1793, danger threatened France on all sides. The country was at war with much of Europe, including Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, and Prussia.

The Convention itself was bitterly divided between Jacobins and a rival group, the Girondins.

To deal with the threats to France, the Convention created the Committee of Public Safety.

The 12-member committee had almost absolute power as it bat- tled to save the revolution.In addition, the 12 members of the Committee were in charge of trials and executions.Soon, French armies over- ran the Netherlands. They later invaded Italy.

At home, the government bat- tled counterrevolutionaries under the guiding hand of Maximilien R o b e s p i e r r e . Robespierre, a shrewd lawyer and politician, quickly rose to the leadership of the Committee of Public Safety.

Robespierre had embraced Rousseau's idea of the general will as the source of all legitimate law. He promoted religious toleration and wanted to abolish slavery.

On the night of July 27, 1794, Robespierre was arrested. The next day he was executed. After the heads of Robespierre and other radicals fell, executions slowed dramatically.

The revolution enters its third stage

revolutions entered its third stage, and they produced third constitution since 1789.

the consitution of 1795 set up five man directory and two house legislature elected by male citizens of property. The middle class and professional people of the bourgeoisie were the dominant force during this stage of the French Revolution. The Directory held power from 1795 to 1799.

Peace was made with Prussia and Spain, but war with Austria and Great Britain continued.

Another threat to the Directory was the revival of royalist feeling. Many émigrés were returning ot France, and devout Catholics. In the elections of 1797, supporters of a constitutional monarchy won the majority of seats in the legislature.

s chaos threatened, politicians turned to N a p o l e o n Bonaparte, a popular military hero who had won a series of brilliant victories against autralia in italy. To theirdismay, however, before long Napoleon would outwit them all to become ruler of France.

revolution brings change

Revolution and war gave the French people a strong sense of national identity.They set up state schools to replace religious ones and organized systems to help the poor, old soldiers, and war widows.

Marseliansm

The Age of Napoleon

At age nine, he was sent to France to be trained for a military career.When the revolution broke out, he was an ambitious 20-year-old lieutenant, eager to make a name for himself. Napoleon favored the Jacobins and republican rule.

In December 1793, he drove British forces out of the French port of Toulon.

He then went on to win several dazzling victories against the Austrians, capturing most of northern Italy and forcing the Hapsburg emperor to make peace.

ehTEgyptian cam- paign proved to be a disaster, but Napeonl managed to hide stories of the worst losses from his admirers i n France. He did so

by establishing a network of spies and censoring the press.

By 1799, he moved from victori- ous general to political leader. That year, he helped overthrow the weak Directory and set up a three-man governing board known as the Consulate.

In 1802, he had himself named consul for life.

Napaleon reforms France

• Napoleon was born in Corsica, french ruled island in mediterranean.

• at the age of nine he was sent to France to train for military career.

• Napoleon favored Jacobins and republican rule.

• in 1793 he drove British forces out of French port of Toulon.

• he than went to win several dazzling victories against Australians, capturing most of northern Italy.

• Hoping to disrupt British trade with India, he led an expedition to Egypt in 1798.

• By 1799, he moved from victorious general to political leader.

• Another constitution was drawn up, but Napoleon soon took the title First Consul. In 1802, he had himself named consul for life.

• Napoleon consolidated his power by strengthening the central government.

• To restore economic prosperity, Napoleon controlled prices, encouraged new industry, and built roads and canals.

• He made peace with the Catholic Church in the Concordat of 1801. The Concordat kept the Church under state control but recognized religious freedom for Catholics.

• He set up a system of public schools under strict government control to ensure well-trained officials and military officers. At the same time, Napoleon backed off from some of the revolution's social reforms.

• He encouraged émigrés to return, provided they take an oath of loyalty.

• Peasants were relieved when he recognized their right to lands they had bought from the Church and nobles during the revolution.

Napoleonic Code: It embodied Enlightenment principles such as the equality of all citizens before the law, religious toleration, and the abolition of feudalism.

• Women, for example, lost most of their newly gained rights and could not exercise the rights of citizenship.

• Napoleon valued order and authority over individual rights.

• From 1804 to 1812 he successfully battled the combined forces of the greatest European powers.

• by 1812, his Grand Empire reached its greatest extent

The map of Europe is redrawn

• As Napoleon created a vast French empire, he redrew the map of Europe.

• He annexed or incorporated into his empire the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of Italy and Germany.

Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, a loose confederation of territories in Central Europe that had existed for over a thousand years. In its place, he established the Confederation of the Rhine, a group of 38 German states that were aligned with France and under Napoleon’s influence and protection.

his move effectively weakened the power of Austria and Prussia, two major powers within the Holy Roman Empire, and further consolidated Napoleon’s control over Europe. The Confederation of the Rhine lasted until 1813, when it collapsed after Napoleon’s defeat.

• after unseating the king of Spain, he placed his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne.

• He also forced alliances on European powers from Madrid to Moscow.

• Britain alone, of al the major European powers, remained outside Napoleon's European empire.

• In 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte prepared to invade Britain, but his plans were thwarted by the British navy at the Battle of Trafalgar. Dmiral Horatio Nelson led the British fleet in a decisive victory that destroyed much of the French fleet, preventing any invasion of Britain.

• With an invasion no longer possible, Napoleon turned to economic warfare against Britain. He implemented the Continental System, which was a blockade that aimed to cripple Britain’s economy by closing European ports to British goods.

• but it also caused economic hardship for other European nations that were forced to comply with the blockade. Ultimately, the Continental System was not fully effective, as smuggling and Britain’s naval superiority undermined its success.

• Britain responded with its own blockade of European ports.

• During their long struggle, both Britain and France seized neutral ships suspected of trading with other side.

• British attacks on American ships sparked anger in US and eventually triggered the war of 1812.

• Although British exports declined, Britain's powerful navy kept vital trade routes open to the Americas and India. Meanwhile, trade

  restrictions created a scarcity of goods in Europe, sent prices soaring, and intensified resentment against French power.

Napoleons’s Empire faces challenges

• 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia. This campaign began a chain of events that eventually led to his downfall. Napoleon's final defeat brought an end to the era of the French Revolution.

• Although nationalism spurred French armies to success, it worked against them too.

• They resented the Continental System and Napoleon's effort to impose French culture on them.

• From Rome to Madrid to the Netherlands, nationalism unleashed revolts against France. In the German states, leaders encouraged national loyalty among German-speaking people to counter French influence.

• When the Spanish resisted Napoleon’s forces, particularly in the wake of his efforts to undermine the Catholic Church and remove the Spanish monarchy, the well-armed French forces responded with brutal repression. This was most notably seen during the Peninsular War (1808-1814), when Napoleon attempted to install his brother Joseph Bonaparte as the king of Spain.

Guerrilla warfare refers to a form of irregular warfare where small, mobile groups of combatants use unconventional tactics such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, and hit-and-run attacks. These tactics are typically employed by forces that are not a traditional army and usually fight against a larger, more established military force.

• Spanish patriots conducted a campaign of guerrilla warfare, or hit-and-run raids, against the French.

• Small bands of guerrillas ambushed French supply trains or troops before retreating into the countryside.

• These attacks kept large numbers of French soldiers

  tied down in Spain when Napoleon needed them elsewhere.

• Spanish resistance encouraged Austria to resume hostilities against the French.

• In 1805, at the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon had won a crushing victory against an Austro-Russian army of superior numbers.

• In 1809, Austria, seeking revenge for its previous defeats by Napoleon, launched another attempt to challenge French power. However, Napoleon decisively defeated the Austrian army at the Battle of Wagram, which took place in July 1809. Following this victory, Austria was forced to sign a peace agreement in which it had to surrender significant territories to France.

The Russian winter stops the grand army

• Tsar Alexander I of Russia was once an ally of Napoleon. The tsar and Napoleon planned to divide Europe if Alexander helped Napoleon in his Continental System.

• These and other issues led the tsar to withdraw his support from the Continental System.

• Napoleon responded to the tsar's action by assembling an army with soldiers from 20 nations, known as the Grand Army.

• In 1812, with about 600,000 soldiers and 50,000 horses, Napoleon invaded Russia.

• To avoid battles with Napoleon, the Russians retreated eastward, burning crops and villages as they went.

• The scorched-earth policy is a military strategy in which retreating forces deliberately destroy anything that could be useful to the enemy, such as food supplies, shelter, infrastructure, and resources, in order to deny them the means to sustain their operations.

• Napoleon entered Moscow in September. He realized, though, that he would not be able to feed and supply his army through the long Russian winter. In October, he turned homeward.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw:

The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was a short-lived state created by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807 after his victory over Prussia and Russia in the Treaty of Tilsit.

Napoleon established the Grand Duchy of Warsaw as a way to gain Polish support for his campaigns, especially in the context of the ongoing wars with Russia and Prussia.

The duchy was ruled by the Duke of Warsaw, who was Napoleon’s ally, Prince Józef Poniatowski.

The Grand Duchy of Warsaw existed until 1815, when Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna reorganized Europe, dissolving the duchy and dividing its lands between the Kingdom of Prussia and the newly established Congress Poland.

Napoleon Falls from the power

• The disaster in Russia brought a new alliance of Russia, Britain, Austria,

  and Prussia against a weakened France.

• In 1813, they defeated Napoleon in the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig.

• They then recognized Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, as king of France.

• He agreed to accept the Napoleonic Code and honor the land settlements made during the revolution.

• An economic depression and the fear of a return to the old

  regime helped rekindle loyalty to Napoleon.

• As the victorious allies gathered in Vienna for a general peace conference, Napoleon escaped his island exile and returned to France.

• As citizens cheered Napoleon's advance, Louis XVIII fled. In March 1815, Napoleon entered Paris in triumph

Crushed at the battle of Waterloo

• His star soared for only 100 days, while the allies reassembled their forces.

• On June 18, 1815, the opposing armies met near the town of Waterloo in Belgium.

• Britishforces under the Duke of Wellington and a Prussian army commanded by General Blücher crushed the French in an agonizing

  day-long battle.

• Napoleon was forced to abdicate and to go into exile on St. Helena, a lonely island in the South Atlantic. This time, he would not return.

Leaders meet at the congress of Vienna

• After Waterloo, diplomats and heads of state again sat down at the

  Congress of Vienna

• They faced the monumental task of restoring stability and order in Europe after years of war.

• The chief goal of the Vienna decision makers was to create a lasting peace by establishing a balance of power and protecting the system of monarchy.

• Metternich, the dominant figure at the Congress, wanted to restore things the way they were in 1792.

• Alexander I urged a "holy alliance" of Christian monarchs to suppress future revolutions.

• the peacemakers also redrew the map of Europe. To contain French

  ambitions, they ringed France with strong countries. In the north, they added Belgium and Luxembourg to Holland to create the kingdom of the

  Netherlands

• restoring hereditary monarchies that the French Revolution or Napoleon had unseated.

• Later, they restored "legitimate" monarchs in Portugal, Spain, and the Italian states.

Congress Fails to see traps ahead

• Another result of the Congress was a system known as the Concert foEurope, in which the powers met periodically to discuss any problems affecting the peace of Europe.

Dawn of the Industrial age

• However, a chain of events set in motion in the mid-1700s changed that way of life for al time.

• The Industrial Revolution started in Britain. political revolutions, it was neither sudden nor swift. Instead, it was a long, slow, uneven process in which production shifted from simple hand tools to complex machines.

Life changes as industry spreads

• In 1750, most people worked the land, using handmade tools. They lived in simple cottages lit by firelight and candles.

• In nearby towns, they might exchange goods at a weekly outdoor market.

• Those bold adventurers who dared to cross the seas were at the mercy of the winds and tides.

• With the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the rural way of

  life began to disappear.

• By the 1850s, many country villages had grown into industrial towns and cities.

• Industrial-age travelers moved rapidly between countries and continents by train or steamship. Urgent messages flew along telegraph wires.

• New inventions and scientific "firsts" poured out each year. Between 1830 and 1855, for example, an American dentist first used an anesthetic, or drug that prevents pain during surgery; an American inventor patented the first sewing machine;

Agriculture spurs industry

• The Dutch led the way in this new agricultural revolution.

• They built earthen walls known as dikes to reclaim land from the sea.

• used fertilizer from livestock to renew the soil.

• In the 1700s, British farmers expanded on Dutch agricultural experiments. Educated farmers exchanged news of experiments through

  farm journals. Some farmers mixed different kinds of soils to get higher

  crop yields.

• Jethro Tull invented a new mechanical device, the seed drill, to aid farmers. It deposited seeds in rows rather than scattering them wastefully over the land.

Enclosure increases output but causes Migration

Enclosure: process of taking over and consolidating land that was previously shared by peasant farmers.

the British Parliament facilitated enclosures through legislation. This means that the government passed laws that made it easier for landowners to enclose land, a process that had a significant impact on agriculture in Britain.

As millions of acres were enclosed, landowners consolidated smaller plots of land into larger, more efficient farms

Many farm laborers were thrown out of work, and small farmers were forced off their land because they could not compete with large landholders.

population multiplies

The agricultural revolution contributed to a rapid growth of population.

Britain's population, for example, soared from about 5 million in 1700 to almost 9 million in 1800.

The population of Europe as a whole shot up from roughly 120 million to about

180 million during the same period. Such growth had never before been seen.

First, the agricultural revolution reduced the risk of death from famine because it created a surplus of food. Since people ate better, they were healthier. Also, better hygiene and sanitation, along with improved medical care, further slowed deaths from disease.

New Technology becomes key

Another factor that helped trigger the Industrial Revolution was the development of new technology.

• an energy revolution: One vital power source was coal, used to develop the steam engine. In 1712, British inventor Thomas Newcomen had developed a steam engine powered by coal to pump water out of mines.

• James Watt, after several years of work, would become a key power source of the Industrial Revolution. The steam engine opened

  the door not only to operating machinery but eventually to powering locomotives and steamships.

• the quality of iron improves: Coal was also a vital source of fuel in the production of iron, a material needed for the construction of machines and steam engines.

• The Darby family of Coalbrookdale pioneered new methods of producing iron. Abraham Darby used coal instead of charcoal to

  smelt iron, or separate iron from its ore.

• Darby's experiments led him to produce less expensive and better quality iron,

• Both his son and grandson continued to improve on his methods. In

  fact, Abraham Darby III built the world's first iron bridge.

Britain leads the way

• Britain had the advantage of plentiful natural resources such as natural ports and navigable rivers. Rivers supplied water power and allowed for the construction of canals → why Britain?

• These canals increased accessibility for trade and were instrumental in bringing goods to market.

• Britain was able to establish communications and transport relatively cheaply due to its easy accessibility to the sea from all points.

• resources of coal

• Vast supplies of iron were available to be used to build het new machines.

• the 1700s, Britain had plenty of skilled mechanics who were eager to meet the growing demand for new, practical inventions.

• In order to increase the production of goods to meet the demand, however, another key ingredient was needed. Money was necessary to start businesses.

• From the mid-1600s to 1700s, trade from a growing overseas empire helped the British economy prosper.

• Beginning with the slave trade, the business class accumulated capital, or money used to invest in enterprises. An enterprise is a business organization in an area such as shipping, mining, railroads, or factories.

• Britain had a stable government that supported economic growth.

• These entrepreneurs were those who managed and assumed the financial risks of starting new businesses.

The Textile industry advances

• In the 1600s, cotton cloth imported from India had become popular. British merchants tried to organize a cotton cloth industry at home.

• They developed the putting-outsystem, also known as cottage

  industry, in which raw cotton was distributed to peasant

  families who spun it into thread and then wove the thread into cloth in their own homes.

• John Kay's flying shuttle enabled weavers to work so fast that they soon outpaced spinners.

• James Hargreaves solved that problem by producing the spin- ning jenny in 1764, which spun many threads at the « James Hargreaves'

  same time.

meanwhile, in America, these faster spinning and weaving machines presented a challenge-how to produce enough cotton to keep up with England.

Raw cotton grown in the South had to be cleaned of dirt and seeds by hand, a time-consuming task. To solve this, Eli Whitney invented a machine called the cotton gin that separated the seeds from the raw cotton at a fast rate.

3

• working people would suffer with dangerous working conditions; unsafe, unsanitary, and over- crowded housing; and unrelenting poverty.

• The Industrial Revolution brought rapid urbanization, or the movement of people to cities.

• Almost overnight, small towns around coal or iron mines mushroomed into cities.

• The British market town of Manchester numbered 17,000 people in the 1750s. Within a few years, it exploded into a center of the textile industry.

new social classes emerge

• the industrial revolution created new middle class among the working class.

• Those in the middle class owned and operated the new factories, mines, and railroads, among other industries. Their lifestyle was much more comfortable than that of the industrial working class.

industrial middle class

• Those who benefited most from the Industrial Revolution were the entrepreneurs who set it in motion.

• The Industrial Revolution created this new middle class, or bourgeoisie

• Some were merchants who invested their growing profits to factories. Others were inventors or skilled artisans who developed new technologies.

• they wore fancy clothing and ate well. The new middle class took pride in their hard work and their determination to "get ahead."

• women of the middle class did not leave the home to work but instead focused on raising children.

• this contrasted with the wealthy who had maidservants who looked after kids and working class whose children were part of the workforce.

The industrial working class

• they packed into tiny rooms in tenements or multistory building divided into apartments

• tenements had no running water only community pumps.

• no sanitation system, so wastes and garbage rotted in the streets → contaminated drinking water

• this led to spread of diseases such as Cholera

workers stage futile protests

• labor unions or workers organizations were illegal at this time, secret unions did exist among British workers.

• They wished to initiate worker reforms, such as increases in pay, but had no political power to effect change.

• The first instances of industrial riots occurred in England from 1811 to 1813.

• Groups of textile workers known as the Luddites resisted the labor-saving machines that were costing them their jobs.

• Some of them smashed textile machines with sledgehammers and burned factories.

workers find comfort in religion

• Many working-class people found comfort in a religious movement called Methodism.

• This movement was influenced by the Industrial Revolution as people moved to cities and lost connections with their old churches.

• John Wesley had founded the Methodist movement in the mid-1700s. Wesley stressed the need for a personal sense of faith. He encouraged his followers to improve themselves by adopting sober, moral ways

• They set up Sunday schools where followers not only studied the Bible but also learned to read and write.

• Methodists helped channel workers' anger away from revolution and toward reform.

• Working hours were long, with shifts lasting from 12 to 16 hours, six or seven days a week.

• Exhausted workers suffered accidents from machines that had no safety devices.

• In textile mills, workers constantly breathed air filled with lint, which damaged their lungs. Those workers who became sick or injured lost their jobs.

• The majority of early factory workers were women rather than men.

  Employers often preferred to hire women workers because they thought

  women could adapt more easily to machines and were easier to manage

• In addition, employers generally paid women half what they paid men.

Mine face worse conditions

• The Industrial Revolution increased the demand for iron and coal, which in turn increased the need for miners.

• Although miners were paid more, working conditions in the mines were even worse than in the factories.

• There were always the dangers of explosions, flooding, and collapsing tunnels.

children have dangerous jobs

• These children often started working at age seven or eight, a few as young as five.

• They also crawled under machinery to repair broken threads in the mills.

• Because children had helped with work on the farm, parents accepted the idea of child labor.

• Child

  labor reform laws called "factory acts" were passed in the early 1800s. These laws were passed to reduce a child's workday to twelve hours and also to remove children under the age of eight or nine from the cotton mills.

• British law makers formed teams of inspectors to ensure that factories and mines obeyed the laws in the 1830s and 1840s.

• More laws were then passed to shorten the workday for women and

  require that child workers be educated.

the results of industrialization

• Since the 1800s, people have debated whether the Industrial Revolution was a blessing or a curse.

• In time, however, reformers pressed for laws to improve working conditions.

• Labor unions won the right to bargain with employers for better wages, hours, and working conditions.

• Eventually working-class men gained the right to vote, which gave

  them political power.

• As demand for mass-produced goods grew, new factories opened, which in turn created more jobs.

Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

• In 1830 and 1848 Europeans saw street protests explode into full-scale revolts.

• As in 1789 the upheavals began in Paris and spread across the continent.

French rebels win in 1830

• when congress of Vienna restored Louis XVIII to french throne he issued a constitution → Charter of French Liberties, which created 2 house legislature and allowed limited freedom of the press.

• When Louis XVIII died in 1824 his brother Charles X inherited the throne.

• Charles a believer in absolutism, rejected the very idea of the charter.

• In July 1830, he suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted the press

• Liberals and radicals threw up barricades across the narrow streets.

• A frightened Charles X abdicated and fled to England

Citizen king rules the France - July

• With the king gone, radicals wanted to set up a republic.

• Moderate liberals, however, insisted on a constitutional monarchy and chose Louis Philippe as king.

• Louis supported revolution of 1789

• Louis got along well with the liberal bourgeoisie. He dressed like them in a frock coat and top hat.

• Under Louis Philippe, the upper bourgeoisie prospered.

• Louis extended suffrage, but only to France's wealthier citizens. The king's other policies also favored the middle class at the expense of the workers.

The spirit of reform spreads

• The revolts in Paris inspired the outbreak of uprisings elsewhere in

  Europe.

• Most of the uprisings were suppressed by military force.

• Even when they failed, revolutions frightened rulers badly enough to encourage reform.

Belgium wins independence

• The one notable success in 1830 took place in Belgium.

• In 1815, the Congress of Vienna had united the Austrian Netherlands (present-day Belgium) and the Kingdom of Holland under the Dutch king.

• The Congress had wanted to create a strong barrier to help prevent French expansion in the future.

• They and the Dutch had different languages. The Belgians were Catholic, while the Dutch were Protestant. The Belgian economy was based on manufacturing; the Dutch, on trade.

• Students and workers threw up barricades in Brussels.

• Britain and France believed that they would benefit from the separation of Belgium and Holland and supported Belgian demands for independence.

• 1831, Belgium became an independent state with liberal constitution.

Rebels Fail in Poland

• Nationalists in Poland also staged an uprising in 1830. But unlike Belgians the poles failed

• In late 1700s, Russia, Austria and Prussia had divided up Poland. Poles had hoped that Congress of Vienna would restore their homeland in 1815, instead they handed most of Poland to Russia.

• Some survivors fled to Western Europe and the United States, where

  they kept alive the dream of freedom

French revolts again in 1843

• radicals formed secret society to work for a French republic.

• socialists called for an end to private ownership of property

• Liberals denounced Louis Philippe’s government for corruption and called for expanded suffrage

• Near the end of the decade, discontent was heightened by a recession, or period of reduced economic activity.

• Factories shut down and people lost their jobs.

Turmoil spreads during “February days”

• In February 1848, when the government took steps to silence critics and prevent public meetings, angry crowds took to the streets.

• Church bells rang alarms, while women and men on the barricades sang

  the revolutionary anthem "La Marseillaise."

• A number of demonstrators clashed with royal troops and were killed.

• As the turmoil spread, Louis Philippe abdicated.

• A group of liberal, radical, and socialist leaders proclaimed the Second Republic.

• Middle-class liberals wanted moderate political reforms. Socialists wanted social and economic change and forced the government to set up national workshops to provide jobs for the unemployed.

the working class loses out during “June days”

• By June, however, upper- and middle-class interests had won control of the government. They saw the national workshops as a waste of money

  and shut them down.

• Furious, workers again took to the streets of Paris. This time, however,

  bourgeois liberals turned violently against the protesters.

• Peasants, who feared that socialists might take their land, also attacked the rioting workers. At least 1,500 people were killed

new Napoleon comes to power

• national assembly issued constitution for the second republic

• It created a strong president and a one-house legislature. But it also gave the vote to all adult men, the widest suffrage in the world at the time.

• Louis Napoleon won the presidential elections → Nephew of Napoleon

• attracted the working classes by presenting himself as a man who cared about social issues such as poverty.

• By 1852, he had proclaimed himself emperor, taking the title NapoleonIII. Thus ended the short-lived Second Republic.

• Many thought that a monarchy was more stable than a republic or hoped that Napoleon III would restore the glory days of Napoleon Bonaparte.

• again empire after republic → plebitide

Revolution surges though Europe

• In 1848, revolts in Paris again unleashed a tidal wave of revolution across Europe.

• For opponents of the old order, it was a time of such hope that they called it the "springtime of the peoples."

• Middle-class liberals wanted a greater share of political power for them- selves.

Change in austrian empire

• Even though Metternich censored the press, books were smuggled to universities throughout the empire.

• When workers joined the students on the streets of Vienna, Metternich resigned and fled in disguise.

• In Budapest, Hungarian nationalists led by journalist Louis Kossuth demanded an independent government, an end to serfdom, and a written constitution to protect basic rights.

• in Prague, the Czechs made similar demands. Overwhelmed by events,

  the Austrian government agreed to the reforms.

• Austrian troops soon regained control of Vienna and Prague and smashed the rebels in Budapest.

revolts in Italy

• Nationalists wanted to end Hapsburg domination and set up a constitutional government.

• Italians set up independent republics. Revolutionaries even expelled the pope from Rome and installed a nationalist government.

• Austrian troops ousted the new governments in northern Italy. A

  French army restored the pope to power in Rome.

Rebellion in German states

• In the German states, university students demanded national unity and liberal reforms.

• Economic hard times and a potato famine brought peasants and workers into the struggle.

• In Prussia, liberals forced King Frederick William IV to agree to a constitution written by an elected assembly. Within a year, though, he

  dissolved the assembly.

• Throughout 1848, delegates from German states met in the Frankfurt Assembly.

• Finally, the assembly offered Prussia's Frederick William VI the crown of a united Germany.

• To their dismay, the conservative king rejected the offer because it came not from the German princes but from the people

• By 1850, rebellion faded, ending the age of liberal revolution that had begun in 1789.