Conquest and Division Under the Rāshidūn Caliphs

Succession Crisis and the Caliphate of Abū Bakr (11–13 AH / 632–634 CE)

  • Succession at the Saqīfa: Following the death of the Prophet on 13 Rabīʿ I, 11 AH without an appointed heir, the Anṣār gathered at the Saqīfa of Banū Sā'ida to elect a leader. 'Umar intervened and swore allegiance to Abū Bakr, which was confirmed the next day via a general oath (bay'a).

  • Caliphal Titles: Abū Bakr assumed the titles Khalīfat Allāh and Amīr al-Mu'minīn.

  • The Ridda Wars: Widespread rebellions erupted across Arabia:

    • Najd: Local tribes renounced tax allegiance to Medina to retain autonomy.

    • Yamāma: Musaylima proclaimed himself a prophet and led the Banū Ḥanīfa.

    • South Arabia: Local tribal coalitions collapsed into anti-Medinese resistance.

  • Pacification Campaigns: Under the field command of Khālid b. al-Walīd, Medinese forces defeated the Ghaṭafān at Dhū'l-Qaṣṣa, broke the coalition of Ṣayy, Ghaṭafān, and Asad at Buzākha, and eliminated Musaylima at the Battle of 'Aqrabā', consolidating caliphal rule across the Arabian Peninsula.

Assembly of the Anṣār and Muhājirūn at the Saqīfa

'Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and Imperial Administration (13–23 AH / 634–644 CE)

  • Ten-Year Expansion: 'Umar presided over the collapse of the Sasanian Persian Empire and drove the Byzantine Empire out of Syria and Egypt across three continents.

  • The Dīwān System: Established a central fiscal military registry paying cash stipends and pensions to warriors rather than partitioning conquered agrarian lands, maintaining armed forces as a mobile standing army under Medinese supervision.

  • Sābiqa (Precedence): Formulated an administrative hierarchy where revenue, pensions, and status were determined by seniority of conversion to Islam rather than lineage.

  • Elite Control: Key provincial administrative commands were restricted primarily to early Muhājirūn from Quraysh of Mecca and Thaqīf of Ṣāʾif.

The Early Conquests: Syria, Egypt, and Iraq

  • Conquest of Syria:

    • Undertaken by approximately 24,000 disciplined troops dispatched directly from Medina, encountering opposing Arab tribes (such as Lakhm, Ghassān, and Judhām) fighting in Byzantine service.

    • Major battles included Ajnādayn (13 AH / 634 CE), Fiḥl (14 AH / 635 CE), and Yarmūk (15–16 AH / 636–637 CE).

    • Jerusalem surrendered personally to 'Umar in 17 AH (638 CE); Syria was subsequently divided into military districts (junds) under the governorship of Mu'āwiya b. Abī Sufyān.

  • Conquest of Egypt:

    • Initiated by 'Amr b. al-'cĀṣ with an initial force of 4,000 men in late 18 AH (639 CE), capturing Faramā.

    • Reinforced to 16,000 troops, 'Amr defeated Byzantine forces at Heliopolis (19 AH / 640 CE), captured the Fortress of Babylon (20 AH / 641 CE), and took Alexandria by capitulation in Shawwāl 21 AH (642 CE).

    • Fuṣṭāṭ was founded as the garrison capital beside Babylon; the Coptic hierarchy was restored to institutional parity after enduring Melkite persecution.

  • Conquest of Iraq and Persia:

    • Early border raids conducted by Khālid b. al-Walīd and Muthannā secured Ḥīra before Muslim forces suffered defeat at the Battle of the Bridge under Abū 'Ubayd.

    • Sa'd b. Abī Waqqāṣ achieved a decisive victory over the Sasanians at the Battle of Qādisiyya, followed by the occupation of Ctesiphon (Madā'in) in 16 AH (637 CE) and the flight of Yazdgird III after the Battle of Jalūlā.

    • Garrison cities (amṣār) were founded at Kūfa and Baṣra; strict sābiqa stipend disparities inside the Dīwān generated enduring economic grievances.

Caliphate of 'Uthmān b. 'Affān and the Outbreak of Sedition (23–35 AH / 644–656 CE)

  • Election and Centralization: Appointed over 'Alī by a six-member shūrcā of Qurashī Muhājirūn, 'Uthmān centralized provincial financial revenues to Medina, oversaw the codification of the canonical text of the Qur'ān, and elevated his Umayyad kin to major governorships.

  • Regional Discontent:

    • Kūfa: The qurrā' (early combatants) under Mālik al-Ashtar resisted Medinese appropriation of crown properties (ṣawāfī), barring Governor Sa'īd b. al-'cĀṣ from re-entering the city.

    • Egypt: Forces opposed Governor Ibn Abī Sarḥ's fiscal exactions; discovery of an alleged caliphal letter ordering the execution of petitioners caused rebellion.

    • Medina: Treasurer 'Abd Allāh b. Mas'ūd resigned over revenue disputes, while senior companions objected to nepotism.

  • Assassination (35 AH / 656 CE): Mutineers from the provinces besieged 'Uthmān's house in Medina and assassinated him while reading the Qur'ān.

Protest outside the residence of 'Uthmān

The First Civil War (Fitna) and the Reign of 'Alī (35–40 AH / 656–661 CE)

  • Battle of the Camel (36 AH / 657 CE): An armed opposition led by Ṣalḥa b. 'Ubayd Allāh, al-Zubayr b. al-'Awwām, and 'cĀ'isha mobilized against 'Alī in Baṣra; 'Alī's Kūfan forces defeated them, killing Ṣalḥa and al-Zubayr in the first open civil bloodshed between Muslims.

  • Battle of Ṣiffīn (37 AH / 657 CE): 'Alī confronted Mu'āwiya b. Abī Sufyān on the Euphrates over Mu'āwiya's demand to avenge 'Uthmān. When Syrian troops affixed pages of the Qur'ān to their spears calling for arbitration, fighting ceased.

  • Arbitration at Adhruḥ: Arbitrators 'Amr b. al-'cĀṣ (for Mu'āwiya) and Abū Mūscā al-Ash'arī (for 'Alī) met; agreeing to arbitration deprived 'Alī of unchallenged legitimacy as reigning caliph.

  • The Khawārij: Secessionist elements of the qurrā' renounced 'Alī under the slogan "Judgment belongs to God alone," declaring all compromises sinful and designating both 'Alī and Mu'āwiya as apostates. Though 'Alī routed them at Nahrawān, radicalized survivors established insurgent communities in the Persian Gulf region.

Troops raising pages of the Qur'ān to demand arbitration at Ṣiffīn

Fall of 'Alī and Umayyad Ascendancy (40 AH / 661 CE)

  • Assassination of 'Alī: 'Alī was assassinated in the mosque of Kūfa in 40 AH (661 CE) by a Khārijī militant.

  • Abdication and Transfer of Power: 'Alī's son al-Ḥasan renounced claims to leadership, enabling Mu'āwiya to secure the allegiance of Iraqi tribal nobles (ashrāf), consolidate the caliphate in Damascus, and inaugurate the Umayyad dynasty.

  • Historical Outcome of the Rāshidūn Era: Over 29 years, the caliphate expanded across the Near East, destroyed Sasanian power, and preserved imperial unity despite fracturing into enduring theological and political divisions regarding leadership, institutional authority, and tribal precedence.