Chapter 7: Cognition, Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

How People Think

  • Thinking (cognition): Mental activity in the brain when processing information.
  • Mental Images: Mental representations with a picture-like quality that stand for objects or events.
  • Concepts: Ideas representing a class or category of events, objects, or activities.
    • Formal concepts: Defined by strict rules.
    • Natural concepts: Developed through experience.
  • Prototype: An example closely matching the defining characteristics of a concept.
  • Problem-solving: Cognition to reach a goal, involving thinking and behaving in certain ways.
  • Decision-making: Cognition involving identifying, evaluating, and choosing among alternatives.
  • Problem-Solving Strategies:
    • Trial and error (mechanical solutions): Trying one solution after another.
    • Algorithms: Specific, step-by-step procedures.
    • Heuristics: Educated guesses based on prior experiences.
      • Representativeness heuristic: Assuming an object sharing characteristics with a category is a member of that category.
      • Availability heuristic: Estimating event frequency based on recall ease.
      • Working backward: Starting from the goal to find a solution.
      • Subgoals: Breaking down a goal into smaller steps.
    • Insight: Sudden perception of a solution.
  • Barriers to Problem Solving:
    • Functional fixedness: Thinking of objects only in terms of typical functions.
    • Mental sets: Persisting in using previously successful problem-solving patterns.
    • Confirmation bias: Seeking evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
  • Creativity: Solving problems by combining ideas or behaviors in new ways.
    • Convergent thinking: Seeing a problem as having one answer.
    • Divergent thinking: Starting from one point and generating many different ideas.
    • Creative people are good at mental imagery, knowledgeable, independent, and unconventional.

Intelligence

  • Intelligence: The ability to learn from experiences, acquire knowledge, and adapt to new situations.
  • Spearman's g factor: General intelligence (ability to reason and solve problems); s factor: Specific intelligence (ability to excel in certain areas).
  • Gardner's multiple intelligences: Nine different types of intelligence.
  • Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence:
    • Analytical intelligence: Breaking problems down into component parts.
    • Creative intelligence: Dealing with new concepts and finding new solutions.
    • Practical intelligence: Using information to succeed in life.
  • Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory: A hierarchical model of cognitive abilities.
  • Neuroscience Theories: Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT).
  • Measuring Intelligence:
    • Binet's mental ability test: Determining a child's mental age.
    • Stanford-Binet and IQ:
      • Intelligence quotient (IQ): (mental age/chronological age)×100(\text{mental age} / \text{chronological age}) \times 100
      • IQ tests now compare scores to standardized norms.
    • Wechsler tests: Yield four index scores (verbal and nonverbal) and an overall intelligence score.
  • Test Construction:
    • Reliability: Consistency of test scores over time.
    • Validity: Accuracy of a test measuring what it should.
    • Standardization: Implementing tests under controlled conditions.
    • Norms: Provide a reference for interpreting scores.
      • Deviation IQs: Scores distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15.
    • IQ tests and cultural bias: Tests may be culturally biased.
    • Usefulness of IQ scores: Applications in neuroscience (head trauma, Alzheimer's, CTE).
  • Individual Differences in Intelligence:
    • Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder): Significantly below-average cognitive and behavioral skills.
      • Four levels of delay: mild, moderate, severe, profound.
      • Causes: deprived environments, chromosome/genetic disorders, dietary deficiencies.
    • Giftedness: IQ of 130 or above (top 2% of the population).
    • Emotional intelligence: Awareness and management of one's emotions, and understanding emotions in others.
  • Nature/Nurture Issue:
    • Heritability: Extent to which trait variations are due to genetic influences.
      • Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50.
    • The bell curve and misinterpretation of statistics.
    • Stereotype threat: Awareness of negative stereotypes affecting performance.

Language

  • Language: A system for combining symbols (words) to communicate.
  • Grammar: Rules governing language structure and use.
  • Phonemes: Basic units of sound.
  • Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning.
  • Syntax: Rules for combining words into sentences.
  • Semantics: Rules for determining meaning.
  • Pragmatics: Practical aspects of communication.
  • Development of Language:
    • Child-directed speech plays an important role.
    • Receptive-productive lag: Language understanding outpaces production.
  • Relationship Between Language and Thought:
    • Piaget: Concepts precede and aid language development.
    • Vygotsky: Language aids cognitive development and behavior control.
    • Linguistic relativity hypothesis: Thought processes controlled by language (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis).
    • Cognitive universalism: Universal concepts influence language development.
  • Animal Studies in Language:
    • Some success with chimpanzees, parrots, and dolphins.
    • Controversy over the lack of syntax learning.

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Recognizing Cognitive Biases

  • Cognitive biases can negatively affect decisions.
  • Awareness and use of outside resources can help prevent poor decisions.