Kennedy and Johnson: The New Frontier and Great Society Notes

The "New Frontier" and the 1960 Presidential Campaign

• Inauguration of the Vision: During his acceptance speech for the Democratic presidential nomination, John Fitzgerald Kennedy (JFK) outlined his vision for a "New Frontier."
• Core Philosophy: The "New Frontier" was characterized by social and economic freedoms modeled after Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal, but driven by the energy of a younger administration.
• Candidate Profiles:     - John F. Kennedy: A young, charismatic Democrat with a forward-looking attitude.     - Richard Nixon: The Republican candidate who championed the continuation of the peace and prosperity seen during the Eisenhower administration.
• The Televised Debates: The 1960 election featured the first series of televised debates, which became a turning point in political campaigning due to the importance of visual appearance.     - Kennedy's Strategy: He met with the producer beforehand to discuss lighting and camera placement. He wore a suit specifically chosen to reduce glare and provide contrast against the gray background.     - Nixon's Approach: Nixon did not prepare for the visual aspects of the broadcast. On screen, he appeared aged and ill, whereas Kennedy looked young and healthy.
• Election Statistics: Kennedy won a narrow victory. Out of approximately $69,000,000$ votes cast, Kennedy received only $118,550$ more than Nixon.
• Historic Firsts: Kennedy became the youngest person ever elected to the presidency and the first-ever Catholic president.
• The 35th President: JFK officially became the $35 ext{th}$ President of the United States.

Kennedy’s Inaugural Address and Domestic Policy

• Speech Preparation: Kennedy intended for his inaugural address to go beyond a mere formality; he wanted to inspire the youth and advocate for peace over nuclear conflict.
• Collaboration with Ted Sorenson: Kennedy asked his speechwriter, Ted Sorenson, to study Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address to understand its success.
• Key Themes: The speech used clear, simple language and addressed the Cold War by encouraging allies and enemies to work together. It contained the iconic line: ‘Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.’
• Domestic Policy Challenges: Because of his narrow margin of victory and lack of firm support from his own party members, some domestic goals were difficult to achieve.
• Social Welfare and Poverty Relief:     - The administration achieved successes in poverty relief and care for the disabled.     - Kennedy worked with Congress to expand unemployment benefits.     - He tested a food stamp program.     - He expanded the school lunch program to reach a broader student base.     - Mental Health: In October $1963$, Congress passed the Mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act, which increased funding for public mental health services.

Kennedy and Civil Rights

• Tactical Caution: Lacking strong congressional support, Kennedy was initially cautious in his approach to civil rights, though he worked with leaders like Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
• Legislative Legacy: These early efforts initiated the legislation that eventually became the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
• Voting Rights: Kennedy focused on securing African American voting rights by targeting poll taxes, which had been used to disenfranchise poor voters.
• The Twenty-Fourth Amendment: Encouraged by the Civil Rights Act of 1960, Kennedy pushed for a constitutional amendment outlawing poll taxes. This became the Twenty-Fourth Amendment, proposed in $1962$ and fully ratified in $1964$.

Kennedy’s Foreign Policies and "Soft Power"

• Cold War Focus: Kennedy spent a significant portion of his energy on foreign policy, aiming to protect the "free world" through American ideals rather than just military power.
• Alliance for Progress: This program collaborated with Latin American governments to promote economic growth and social stability to prevent a shift toward communism.
• U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID): Established by Kennedy to oversee the distribution of foreign aid.
• The Peace Corps: This program recruited idealistic young Americans for humanitarian projects in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Goals included:     - Increasing food supplies.     - Improving health care.     - Improving education.
• Strategic Rationale: Kennedy believed these efforts would encourage developing nations to align with the United States rather than the Soviet Union or China (‘soft power’).

The Berlin Wall and Cold War Tensions

• Post-WWII Partitioning: Germany was split into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany; democratic) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany; communist/Soviet-controlled).
• Berlin's Division: Though located within East Germany, Berlin was split. West Berlin was controlled by the United Kingdom, France, and the United States; East Berlin was controlled by the Soviets.
• The Migration Crisis: Between $1949$ and $1961$, people moved from East Germany to the West seeking jobs and freedom, leading to a loss of skilled professionals in the East.
• Construction of the Wall: Overnight between August $12$ and $13$, $1961$, East German workers built a cinder block wall topped with barbed wire to halt migration.
• Fatalities and Statistics: A $2017$ study by the Free University of Berlin found that $327$ people died trying to cross the wall during its existence; half of these individuals were between the ages of $18$ and $25$.
• Checkpoint Charlie: This was an American-controlled crossing point between East and West Berlin where Kennedy stood during his visit in June $1963$.

The Assassination of John F. Kennedy

• Trip to Dallas: On November $21$, $1963$, Kennedy traveled to Texas with Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) to rally supporters for the upcoming $1964$ election.
• The Shooting: On November $22$, $1963$, Kennedy's motorcade passed through Dealey Plaza in Dallas. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy rode in an open-top limousine with Texas Governor John Connally and his wife Nellie.
• Casualties: Governor Connally was hit in the chest but survived; President Kennedy was struck in the head and died.
• The Suspect: Lee Harvey Oswald, an employee at the Texas School Book Depository and a trained sniper, was arrested and charged.
• Jack Ruby: Two days later, while being transferred to the county jail, Oswald was shot and killed by local business owner Jack Ruby, who claimed to be avenging the president.
• The Warren Commission: To address conspiracy theories, Lyndon Johnson appointed a commission led by Chief Justice Earl Warren. It concluded that Oswald acted alone and there was no conspiracy.

Lyndon B. Johnson and the Great Society

• Accession: LBJ became the $36 ext{th}$ President, taking the oath of office aboard Air Force One.
• Vision: Johnson introduced the "Great Society," which he saw as a continuation of the New Deal, Fair Deal, and New Frontier. He aimed to expand the government’s role in securing economic opportunity and civil rights.
• The War on Poverty: This was the centerpiece of the Great Society.
• Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965: Provided grants for city housing for the poor.
• Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) of 1964: Established agencies to help the poor find employment, including:     - Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO)     - Job Corps     - Neighborhood Youth Corps     - Operation Head Start: A program to help underprivileged children prepare for school.     - Volunteer Services in America (VISTA)     - Upward Bound     - Community Action Program (CAP)
• Rural and Minority Support: The EOA provided low-interest loans for farms and businesses, created jobs in the impoverished Appalachia region, and brought programs to Native American reservations.
• Social Security Act of 1965 (Medicare): Created a program to pay medical expenses for those older than $65$. While the American Medical Association feared it would lead to nationalized healthcare, it had broad public support across social classes.

LBJ’s Domestic and Social Policies

• Education Reform: Johnson, a former teacher, believed lack of education was the primary cause of poverty.
• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): Provided federal funding for schools and programs for disadvantaged children.
• Arts and Humanities: Johnson signed legislation creating the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities.
• Public Broadcasting: The Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 created the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, leading to the launch of PBS and NPR in $1970$.
• Immigration and Nationality Act (1965):     - Overturned the quota system that favored Western/Northern Europeans.     - Lifted restrictions on immigration from Asia.     - Prioritized immigrants with family ties and valuable skills.     - Replaced the old system with hemisphere and country quotas.     - Resulted in increased immigration from Latin America and Asia, though the end of the Bracero program and hemisphere limits contributed to an increase in unauthorized immigration.

Johnson’s Foreign Policies and Cold War Management

• Containment Strategy: Johnson continued the policy of containment, though he focused less on the "Cold Warrior" identity than Kennedy.
• Vietnam: This conflict became the primary consumer of Johnson's foreign policy time.
• The USS Pueblo Incident (1968): North Korea captured the USS Pueblo, an American intelligence ship, and imprisoned its crew. Johnson sent the USS Enterprise aircraft carrier and called up $15,000$ reserves but ultimately used diplomacy. The crew was released after $11$ months following a formal US apology for violating territory.
• Nuclear Treaties:     - Outer Space Treaty (1967): Banned nuclear weapons in space.     - Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968): Prohibited nuclear nations from helping other nations develop nuclear capabilities.
• Middle East: After the $1967$ Arab-Israeli War, Johnson met with Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin to prevent a nuclear crisis.

Technological Advancement and the Sun Belt

• The Space Race: Triggered by the Soviet launch of Sputnik.
• Apollo 11: The U.S. successfully landed men on the moon.
• Apollo 13: Highlighting American crisis-management, this "successful failure" saw the crew return safely after an oxygen tank explosion.
• Communications: The Telstar 1 satellite (launched $1962$) transmitted TV signals, faxes, and telephone data.
• Economic Shift: Defense and space spending created a middle class of government workers and engineers in the "Sun Belt" (California, Texas, Florida).
• Rising Living Standards: During the $1960 ext{s}$, average family income rose by 33 ext{%}.     - 70 ext{%} of families owned washing machines.     - 83 ext{%} had refrigerators/freezers.     - Nearly 80 ext{%} owned at least one car.
• The Impact of Television: By $1969$, most households had black-and-white TVs, and 31 ext{%} had color sets. Television changed how Americans witnessed events like the Vietnam War and space missions, increasing the focus on holding leadership accountable.