Hunter-Gatherers and the Neolithic Revolution - Vocabulary Flashcards
Hunter-Gatherers and the Neolithic Revolution
Core idea: Civilization is rooted in a transition from mobile hunter-gatherer bands to settled farming communities; as J.B.S. Haldane put it, "Civilization is based, not only on men, but on plants and animals."
Human history: for about 99\% of it, humans lived as hunter-gatherers in small, mobile bands of about 20-25 persons, subsisting by a mix of hunting and gathering wild plants.
Kalahari example (late 19th-20th c. observer): diet included about 80\text{ kinds of plants} (e.g., Mongongo nuts), foragers worked roughly 20\text{ hours} per week, and the Ice Age ended around 11{,}000\text{ BC}, contributing to megafauna extinctions.
Key numbers in early prehistory:
Ice Age end: 11{,}000\text{ BC}
Megafauna extinction linked to climate change and overhunting
Why the Neolithic Revolution happened (ca. 8000 BC onward):
World population around 5\text{ to }10\ \text{million}; by 2010, population of places like Indiana was 6.5\ \text{million}.
Domestication of plants and animals; rise of settled societies; new technologies (pottery, cloth making, metal smelting, brewing beer).
Domestication of Plants (geographic milestones):
SW Asia: wheat, barley, chickpeas, lentils by 8500\text{ BC}.
China: rice and millet by 7500\text{ BC}.
Mesoamerica: corn, beans, squash by 3500\text{ BC}; the emphasis on interdependent crops known as “The Three Sisters.”
Domestication of Animals (examples and timing):
Dogs (their domestication dates around 10{,}000\text{ BC}) in SW Asia, China, and North America; dogs provide companionship and early warning.
Sheep and goats (around 8000\text{ BC}) in SW Asia.
Pigs (around 8000\text{ BC}) in China and SW Asia.
Cattle (around 6000\text{ BC}) in SW Asia and India (aurochs as wild ancestor).
Cats (around 5000\text{ BC}) in SW Asia and Africa; cats are more solitary, while other domesticated animals are broadly social.
General point on domestication: it is a two-way process in which both humans and the other species gain benefits; for example, dogs were domesticated for companionship and alert systems, while plants and animals were adapted to human needs.
Early agricultural tools: the digging stick is identified as a fundamental first tool in agriculture, signaling a crucial shift toward cultivating domesticated plants.
Rise of towns and farming villages: with sedentary agriculture, people moved from nomadic to year-round settlements, beginning with Neolithic farming villages (e.g., Ukraine, around 4800\text{ BC}).
Jericho (around 6800\text{ BC}): a walled city covering ~eight acres with ~3000 inhabitants; irrigation supported cultivation of wheat and barley; herds of sheep and goats.
New technologies accompanying settled life: pottery, cloth making, metal smelting, and brewing beer.
The First Civilization: The Sumerians
The Neolithic Revolution set the stage for rapid population growth and the emergence of civilization; by about 1000\text{ BC} world population was around 50\text{ million}.
Sumerian civilization emerged around 3100\text{ BC} in the southern Mesopotamian delta (Tigris and Euphrates valleys, present-day Iraq).
Uruk: a major city covering several hundred acres with a population of about 40{,}000 inside its walls; society was highly stratified: elites (religious/military) on top; peasants and slaves at the bottom.
Polytheism and temples: The White Temple of Uruk was dedicated to the sky god. By AD 700, the site of Uruk had been abandoned.
Economy and trade: wool and linen textiles were major exports; textiles were crucial to long-distance trade.
Key social roles and institutions:
Lugal: "big man" or king; leadership role in early city-states; famous figure Gilgamesh of Uruk.
Epic of Gilgamesh (circa 2500\text{ BC}) and the Standard of Ur (circa 2600\text{ BC}) as cultural artifacts.
The Sumerian scribes developed cuneiform (Latin: cuneus, “wedge”); writing evolved to record transactions, inventories, taxes, and more.
The beer-jar symbol in cuneiform shows the evolution from pictographs to abstract writing.
Population and labor:
Small farmers constituted about 50\% of the population in early Sumerian city-states; staple crops were wheat and barley—ideal for taxation and provisioning.
Uruk workshops relied on roughly 9{,}000 slaves (about 20\% of the population) to produce linen and wool textiles.
Economic basis: the ability to store wheat and barley enabled trade and resilience during shortages.
Environmental challenges: by 2000\text{ BC}, crop yields in Sumer declined to roughly one-third of earlier levels due to deforestation and salinization of soils; drivers included soil erosion and salt buildup, causing a shift from wheat to barley as a more salt-tolerant staple.
The Decline and Fall of the First Civilization
Sumerian city-states were conquered by Sargon the Akkadian around 2350\text{ BC}.
By 2000\text{ BC}, widespread health and disease entries appear: descriptions of smallpox in Sumerian medical accounts; zoonotic diseases (diseases that originated in nonhuman hosts) include smallpox and influenza. A related claim: quotes from James C. Scott emphasize the broad occurrence of zoonoses in early states.
The polis and Athens: later historical era centers around the rise of Greek city-states (poleis). In classical Greece, there were about 1000\text{ Greek city-states} across Greece, Ionia, the Black Sea region, North Africa, Italy, southern France, and Spain.
Athens (5th century BC) as a centerpiece of democracy:
Population around 300{,}000 and area about 1{,}000\text{ square miles}.
Between 750\text{ BC} and 500\text{ BC}, Athens evolved from a monarchy to an oligarchy, and then to democracy; Athenian democracy persisted roughly from 508\text{ BC} to 322\text{ BC}.
Athenian political institutions (circa 450\text{ BC}):
Ekklesia (the Assembly): all adult, free male citizens met around 40\text{ times a year} at the Pnyx; about 30{,}000 citizens.
Council of 500: a governing body chosen by lot from citizens over 30; rotation and lottery used to ensure fair representation.
Office of Ten Generals (Strategoi): the most elected office; Pericles is noted for a long tenure (roughly 30\text{ years}).
Ostracism: a political check on power (Themistocles example and practice).
Philosophical criticisms and limitations of Athenian democracy:
Aristotle argued that "the male is by nature superior, and the female inferior"; Xenophon echoed views about natural slavery and the division of labor; such ideas framed the political constraints of citizenship and civic participation.
Slavery in Athens and the economy:
At the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC), there were at least 100{,}000 slaves in the city-state; slaves worked in mines, workshops, fields, and households.
Pax Romana and the Problems of Empire
The Pax Romana was a period of relative peace and stability within the Roman Empire, enabling economic and cultural flourishing.
Key administrative and logistical features that bound the empire:
Cursus publicus: the imperial courier network, with horses covering on average about 50\text{ miles per day} for official messages.
Population: the empire contained around 70\text{ million} people with diverse languages, customs, and religions.
Infrastructure and political cohesion:
Roads: roughly 53{,}000\text{ miles} of roads connected the empire, enabling trade and governance; in Britannia, about 6{,}000\text{ miles} of roads were built between AD 43 and 410.
The Roman military:
In Augustus’ time, the army numbered around 250{,}000\,--\,300{,}000 soldiers; during the Pax Romana, legions were primarily stationed along the Danube and Rhine frontiers.
The conquest of Gaul involved enormous casualties; Roman campaigns left many in slavery or servitude.
Hadrian’s Wall (named after Emperor Hadrian, AD 117-38): about 74\text{ miles} long; at its peak, ~15{,}000 soldiers were stationed there.
Military wages and pensions consumed about half of tax revenues.
Cultural diffusion and citizenship:
The spread of Latin language and culture, and Roman citizenship granted to all free men by the imperial edict in AD 212 (Caracalla’s expansion).
The decline is framed around political and economic pressures:
The problem of political succession: the era of the Five Good Emperors (AD 96-180) contrasted with the era of the Barrack Emperors (AD 235-284).
The empire faced economic strains, including population decline from about 70\text{ million} to about 50\text{ million} by late antiquity; plagues like the Antonine Plague (AD 165) and the Plague of Cyprian (AD 249-260) caused millions of deaths (Harper estimates roughly 7-8\;\text{million} deaths for the former).
Military overextension and heavy tax burdens contributed to instability; Salvian lamented the heavy tax burden and the erosion of citizen loyalty.
Invasions and external pressures:
Invasions and migrations by Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, Attila and the Huns undermined the Western Empire; the deposition of Romulus Augustulus by Odovacar in AD 476 marks the symbolic end of the Western Empire, while the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire persisted until 1453.
The Rise of Christianity and the Christian Church
Christianity is presented as a historical religion rising within the Roman world; Tiberius’ rule overlaps with Jesus’ ministry.
Key events in the relationship between church and state:
Polytheistic tolerance in early periods; debates about incorporation of Christians in public life.
The Edict of Milan in AD 313 granted religious toleration to Christians under Constantine.
The Christian population grew from about 6.3\text{ million} (≈11% of the empire) in around AD 300 to about 34\text{ million} (≈57% of the empire) by around AD 350 (as estimated by Philip Esler).
By AD 392, Theodosius declared Christianity the state religion and outlawed the old religions.
The early church structure and writings:
Pagan (Latin, "country person"), bishop (overseer), patriarchs (Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Jerusalem), pope (father) as roles of ecclesiastical leadership.
Justin Martyr’s First Apology (AD 165) describes early Christian worship and practice.
The canon of sacred writings (the Twenty-Seven Books of the New Testament) was solidified around the late 4th century; Jerome was key in translating the Vulgate (Latin translation) of the Bible.
The St. Cuthbert Gospel (early 700s) illustrates early gospel manuscripts.
Islam and the West
Islam as a historical religion founded by Prophet Muhammad (AD 570-632) on the Arabian Peninsula (Mecca, Ramadan).
The Qur’an and its codification:
The traditional account links the Qur’an with the time of Caliph Uthman (AD 644-56); early codices emerged as standard forms of the book.
The spread of Islam (632–1000):
After Muhammad’s death, Islamic governance built an empire spanning from Spain to the western Indian subcontinent and parts of China.
The process of conversion and demographic change occurred unevenly across regions:
In some areas (Iraq, Syria, Egypt, North Africa) conversion was steady; in Iran, conversion began later and accelerated over time (patterns described with estimates like: around AD 500, many regions were non-Muslim; by AD 820 about 50\% of the population were Muslims; by AD 900 about 84\%).
The Qur’an identifies Christians and Jews as "People of the Book" and discusses the jizya head tax on non-Muslims.
The Islamic Exchange (700–1300):
The Islamic world played a pivotal role in transmitting crops (rice, hard wheat for pasta, oranges, lemons, cotton, sugar cane) and ideas/technologies (Hindu-Arabic numerals, papermaking).
By the late 700s in Baghdad, there were more than 100 paper shops supplying blank paper and book production.
The Ottoman Empire and Europe
Post-1400: Turkic nomads toppled the Byzantine Empire and established the Ottoman Empire; the name derives from Osman (1258–1326).
Key milestones:
Siege of Constantinople (April–May 1453) marked the fall of Byzantium and the rise of a powerful Ottoman state centered in Istanbul (Constantinople).
Hagia Sophia and the broader Christian heritage persisted under new rulers.
By 1560 there were over 600 coffeehouses in Istanbul; coffee became popular in Europe after around AD 1650 in London and Paris.
Figures and symbolism:
Constantine XI was the last Byzantine emperor (died in 1453 during the Fall of Constantinople).
The global context: these transitions set the stage for early modern connections between Europe, the Middle East, and Africa through trade, ideas, and culture.
Cross-cutting Themes and Implications
State-building and civilization: From early city-states (Uruk, Sumer) to empires (Rome, Byzantium, Ottoman) and the emergence of the polis in Greece.
Economic bases: taxation on staple crops (wheat, barley), slave labor, long-distance trade networks, and the role of writing as bookkeeping (cuneiform, hieroglyphs, etc.).
Technology and ingenuity: from digging sticks to pottery, metallurgy, writing systems, and paper; from roads to postal couriers; from beer in jars to standardized records.
Social structure and inequality: rigid social hierarchies in Sumer, aristocratic elites in classical Athens, and slave-based labor in multiple societies.
Political philosophy and practice: direct democracy in Athens; rule of law and the limitations on democracy; the role of law and sovereignty in imperial states.
Religion and empire: shift from polytheistic frameworks to monotheistic religions (Christianity, Islam) and the role of religion in legitimizing and transforming political power.
Ethical and practical implications:
Slavery and naturalistic justifications examined critically in classical sources (Aristotle, Xenophon) for understanding historical attitudes toward human rights.
The tension between religious toleration (e.g., Edict of Milan) and the establishment of state religions.
The diffusion of diseases (zoonoses) in early civilizations and empires, highlighting public health challenges in dense populations.
Key Dates and Figures (Quick Reference in LaTeX)
Early agriculture milestones: 8500\text{ BC} (SW Asia cereals), 7500\text{ BC} (China cereals), 3500\text{ BC} (Mesoamerican Three Sisters: corn, beans, squash).
Uruk city-state population and labor: 40{,}000; slaves (~9{,}000; 20\%).
Sumerian collapse: 2000\text{ BC} crop-yield drop to ~1/3 of earlier level.
Athens democracy period: 508\text{ BC}–322\text{ BC}; Ekklesia ~40\text{ meetings/year}; citizens ~30{,}000; Council of 500; Ostracism.
Pax Romana: roads ~53{,}000\text{ miles}; imperial courier ~50\text{ miles/day}; Rome population ~70\text{ million}; citizenship extended to all free men by AD 212; Hadrian's Wall ~74\text{ miles}; soldiers at the wall ~15{,}000.
Major plagues: Antonine Plague (AD 165); Plague of Cyprian (AD 249-260); deaths estimated in the millions.
Constantinople falls: AD 1453; Ottoman expansion; coffeehouses as cultural hubs by 1560 in Istanbul; coffee in Europe ~1650.
Terms and Notable People to Remember
Lugal: "big man"; leader or king in Sumerian city-states.
Gilgamesh: legendary king of Uruk; central figure in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Pericles: influential Athenian leader and proponent of democracy.
Theodosius: established Christianity as the state religion (AD 392).
Constantine: issued the Edict of Milan (AD 313); later rulers solidified Christian dominance.
Diocletian, Constantine, and the division of the empire into Eastern and Western halves and the later emergence of Byzantium.
Osman (1258–1326): founder of the Ottoman state; origin of the term "Ottoman."