AP U.S. Government & Politics - Unit 5: Political Participation

Political Participation

Voting Rights and Models of Behavior

  • Expanding the Electorate: Suffrage Amendments in American History
    • Fifteenth Amendment (1870):
      • Citizens cannot be denied the right to vote on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
    • Nineteenth Amendment (1920):
      • Citizens cannot be denied the right to vote on account of sex.
    • Twenty-Third Amendment (1961):
      • Resident citizens of Washington D.C. were granted electors in the Presidential election (no more than the smallest state).
    • Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964):
      • Citizens cannot be denied the right to vote by reason of failure to pay a tax (poll tax or others).
    • Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971):
      • Citizens eighteen years or older cannot be denied the right to vote on account of age.

Voting Models

  • Decisions that determine a person’s vote:
    • Rational-Choice:
      • Evaluating campaigns to determine what benefits the voter most (this could be personal, issue-based, or societally-based).
    • Retrospective:
      • Looking back at a candidate’s track record or a party’s history.
    • Prospective:
      • Looking ahead; which candidate has a vision that I support?
    • Party-line:
      • Being loyal to a party, not a candidate.

Voter Turnout

  • Voter Registration, Ballots & Voter ID Laws:
    • Administration & Registration:
      • States and local governments oversee election procedures and guidelines.
      • Ballots must be printed, private, include all candidates, and only available at polling sites.
    • Election Day:
      • Absentee/ Mail-in voting is permitted.
      • In-person early voting is available on designated dates.
      • 500-1,000 voters in a precinct are assigned to a polling place.
    • National Voter Registration Act (1993):
      • Increased the locations where citizens can register to vote, like at the DMV (“Motor-Voter Law”).
    • Help America Vote Act (2002):
      • Made voting more accessible, easy & accurate.
      • Changed punch-card voting to electronic voting; gave more options to the disabled.
    • Types of Ballots:
      • Early Voting.
      • Provisional:
        • “Set aside” ballots; allows for the verification of a voter.

Voter ID Laws

  • Most states accept many forms of ID when voting (like signature ID’s, a utility bill); very few require photo ID.
  • Fraud Prevention v. Voter Suppression:
    • Minority groups tend to have larger numbers of voters without proper ID’s (Native Americans, Blacks, Hispanics).
    • Claims about voter fraud tend to be minimal or insignificant.
  • Voter Turnout:
    • Voter apathy and efficacy:
      • Some people aren’t concerned about politics, others feel that their vote is ineffective.
    • Factors of Influence:
      • Gender, Age, Race/Ethnicity, Religion, Career.

Voter Turnout in Recent History

  • Examining Data
    • Practice Data Analysis
      • Describe what each chart is measuring.
      • Identify one trend on each chart.
      • Explain a factor that may have led to that trend.
      • Explain a voting model that may have influenced the outcome of one of the elections.

Political Parties

  • Parties as Linkage Institutions - Connecting people with Government
    • The Benefits of Political Parties:
      1. They mobilize citizens to register and vote, as well as educate voters on political issues.
      2. National Conventions are held to create Party Platforms- a list of beliefs and objectives. “Autopsy Reports” are conducted after losses.
      3. They recruit ideal candidates at all levels and manage campaigns of candidates during chaotic election seasons. This includes fundraising and media outreach.
      4. They create party structure through complex networks and employees in a national committee. Examples- The Democratic National Committee (DNC) and the Republican National Committee (RNC) meet regularly to discuss goals & initiatives.

Why Parties Change & Adapt

  • How Parties Have Evolved
    • Candidate-Centered Campaigns:
      • Less party-lined voting more recently.
      • Influence of “Personality” Candidates could guide the direction of the party.
    • Appealing to "Coalitions”:
      • COALITION: A demographic that votes as a “bloc:”
        • Examples: Hispanics, Blacks, Millennials, blue-collared workers, LBGTQ, Christians
    • The Democratic Party Adjusts:
      • A 1968 Autopsy Report led to the McGovern-Fraser Commission:
        • Superdelegates: Broadened the influence of non-elites at future conventions. High-ranking delegates who cast a vote outside of the primaries for a candidate.
    • Parties & Divided Government:
      • One party controls Congress, and the other controls the White House (has been a theme since 1968).

Third-Party Politics

  • Third-party and Independent Candidates
    • A Third Party is a competitive minor party in national politics.
    • Why do Third-Parties Form?
      • EXAMPLES:
        • To focus on a specific ideology (like Socialism or Libertarianism).
        • To form a “Splinter Party” from the Democratic or Republican party.
        • To protest a specific issue - The Bull Moose Party, Populist Party, Green Party, Independent Party, Libertarian Party
    • Barriers to Third-Party success:
      • Money & ballot access (DNC & RNC have established donors, and ballot requirements are covered)
      • The Electoral College “Winner Take All” approach (except NE & ME) & single-member districts
    • Popular Third-Party ideas have stuck (40-hour work week, a balanced budget, environmental regulations).
    • But there is a bright spot…

Interest Groups Influencing Policy Making

  • Benefits & Drawbacks of Interest Groups
    • INTEREST GROUPS: Organized groups with a “special interest” that serve as linkage institutions.
      • Encourages PLURALISM: A multitude of views that influence our democracy.
    • BENEFITS
      • LOBBYISTS: apply direct pressure to government officials & agencies.
      • Can help government make policy that adapts to changing times and meets the needs of people.
    • DRAWBACKS
      • Government officials can become overwhelmed & unfairly pressured by some groups.
      • HYPERPLURALISM: competing interest groups fail to compromise, leading to the domination of the ones with more power and money.
      • FREE-RIDERS: When group members don’t contribute to the efforts of lobbyists (it can weaken the SIG)

Iron Triangles & Issue Networks

  • IRON TRIANGLES: Bond between a Congressional Committee, Agency (Bureaucracy) and an Interest Group.
    • IRON TRIANGLES
      • Lasting relationships are created; all three entities benefit.
    • ISSUE NETWORKS
      • Short-term Iron Triangles.
      • Often created by different interest groups who share a common concern.

Lobbying

  • METHODS
    • Direct lobbying of legislators, op-ed articles, TV experts, advertisements, pressuring representatives
  • OBJECTIVES
    • To have access to and influence in Washington DC.
    • To foster long-lasting relationships with legislators
    • To shape the strategy of a SIG.
  • LOBBYIST: A person who acts to influence legislators on behalf of an Interest Group.
  • TYPES
    • 501(C)(3): Non-Profits that receive tax- free donations, but cannot lobby nor give to a candidate (Like churches)
    • 501(C)(4): Non-Profits that can lobby and campaign but have limits on that spending. (Like the ACLU and Sierra Club)

Lobbying- Resources

  • SIG’s conduct research & offer findings and expertise to Congressional Committees.
    • Research Example:
      • M.A.D.D- “How many lives would be saved by increasing the drinking age?”
  • ENDORSEMENTS: A public expression of support.
    • Campaigns Example:
      • “Fraternal Order of Police” speaking on a candidate’s track record
  • Grassroots
    • A group trying to inform and mobilize outsiders on a temporary cause.
      • Example: Student Vietnam Protests
  • Framing the Issue
    • How a SIG would speak about a proposed bill.
      • Example: Fracking- can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but eliminate jobs
  • GRASSTOPS: using an influencer or community leader to push an interest
  • Media Example
    • A celebrity being paid to be in an environmental conservation ad

Groups Influencing Policy Outcomes

  • INTEREST GROUPS TO KNOW:
    • LABOR & BUSINESS
      • LABOR: Unions, like the American Federation of Labor & the Congress of Industrial Organization (Merged in 1955 to become the AFL-CIO)
      • BUSINESS: The National Association of Manufacturers (NAM) and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce
    • PROGRESSIVE ERA
      • Women’s Christian Temperance Union.
      • Progressive Amendments: 16, 17, 19
    • CIVIL RIGHTS
      • NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) & the Urban League
    • SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
      • WOMEN
        • National Organization for Women (NOW); National Women’s Political Caucus
      • ENVIRONMENT
        • Sierra Club; Wilderness Society; Audubon Society
      • CONSUMERS
        • Consumers Union; Consumer Federation of America

Groups Influencing Policy Outcomes (Continued)

  • INSTITUTIONAL GROUPS
    • INTERGOVERNMENTAL LOBBY: National Governors Association, National League of Cities, US Conference of Mayors
    • PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS: American Medical Association, American Bar Association
  • NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION (NRA)
    • Narrow Interest: Pro-Gun Legislation
  • SINGLE-ISSUE GROUPS
  • AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF RETIRED PERSONS (AARP)
    • Narrow Interest: Health, Financial Stability, and Social Security
  • THINK TANKS: American Enterprise Institution, the Heritage Foundation

Incentives & Reform

  • INCENTIVES
    • Attempts to prevent “Free-Riders”: (Non-members who benefit from the efforts of SIG’s)
      1. Purposive- member gets philosophical satisfaction.
      2. Solitary- money goes toward member gatherings.
      3. Material- members get travel discounts and “swag”.
  • REFORMS
    • Honest Leadership and Open Government Act (2007):
      • Bans gifts (including travel-related) to Congress from lobbyists, and lobbyist must report expense details from:
        • BUNDLING: Raising large sums of from multiple donors for a candidate.
        • REVOLVING DOOR: Legislators who leave office to become lobbyists; a current loophole to HLOGA efforts.

Electing a President

  • Road to the White House
    • PRIMARIES/CAUCUSES:
      • Caucus: Process of selecting a candidate to represent a party.
      • Closed Primary: Only declared party members can vote.
      • Open Primary: Choosing party affiliation on primary day.
      • Blanket primary: Party affiliation doesn’t matter.
      • INCUMBENT ADVANTAGE PHENOMENON: The ease of a sitting president in getting the nomination for a second term.
      • Supporters of a party elect delegates to vote for the best candidate. (IOWA is the big one)
      • SUPER TUESDAY: The date that many states simultaneously hold a primary/caucus (late Feb-early March). Final candidates are often projected from the results.

Road to the White House (Continued)

  • PARTY CONVENTIONS:
    • GENERAL ELECTIONS:
      • State delegates from each party are sent to announce who gets their vote (based on primary results) & the winning party candidate is announced.
      • Delegate types: Independent, Winner-Take All, Proportional (proportional to the state’s popular vote).
      • How the Parties Differ:
        • DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION:
          • Uses SUPERDELEGATES: an unelected delegate who can support any candidate; uses fair reflection to balance delegate demographics.
        • REPUBLICAN NATIONAL CONVENTION:
          • Rewards loyal states with extra delegates
      • Non-stop campaigning, three debates, lots of time and spent in Swing States (no history of party loyalty)
      • Election Day: First week of November.

Electoral College & “Winner-Take-All”

  • ELECTORAL COLLEGE:
    • WINNER-TAKE-ALL
      • ELECTORS: Assigned voters who cast a ballot for the president after the state’s popular vote is determined.
      • The number of electors per state is based upon the number of Congressional members that the state has.
      • The winning candidate receives at least 270 electoral votes.
      • In most states, the candidate who wins the Plurality (the most) of the popular vote gets all the state's electoral votes.
      • EXCEPTION: Nebraska and Maine

Congressional Elections

  • Congressional Elections
    • MID-TERM ELECTIONS:
      • Federal Elections that take place halfway through a President’s term.
      • Voter Turn-out is much lower than in presidential election years.
    • INCUMBENCY ADVANTAGE:
      • Name recognition and money advantages.
      • Money comes from PAC’s and support from Party Leaders & Congressional Campaign Committees.
    • DISTRICTS & PRIMARIES:
      • Most primaries are not very competitive
      • Gerrymandered districts have created one-party dominance.

Modern Campaigns

  • CAMPAIGN ORGANIZATION
    • CANDIDATE’S COMMITTEE: A candidate files for candidacy & forms an experienced committee, including a treasurer
    • PARTY ORGANIZATION: Parties have endorsement & strategy groups, like the DCCC (Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee)
    • OUTSIDE GROUPS: SIGs, PAC’s, and 527 organizations (like ActBlue, Citizens United, and AFL- CIO)
    • FUNDRAISING: The size of a candidate’s WAR CHEST- or campaign fund, can determine the outcome of an election.

Modern Campaigns: Spending

  • How One Senate Campaign Spent $7.3 Million:
    • Advertising: 4.3M, 58
    • Consulting, IT Services, & Contracted Work: 1.5M, 20
    • Staff Salary & Payroll: 638k, 9
    • Polling: 332k, 5
    • Miscellaneous: 163k, 2%
    • Travel/Airfare/Lodging: 120k, 2%
    • Signs & Field Expenses: 88k, 1%
    • Office Expenses: 88k, 1%
    • Fundraising Costs, Events, & Catering: 92k, 1%
    • Legal Services: 50k, 1%

Modern Campaigns: Strategies

  • CAMPAIGN STRATEGIES
    • PROFESSIONAL CONSULTANTS: Experts include PR, fundraiser, advertiser, social media expert, field organizer, and pollster.
    • CANDIDATE SHOWCASE: Three Segments: Bio, issues, the attack:
      • Define your opponent (Attack)
      • Debates: More helpful for the underdog
      • TV Appearances: News stories and Commercials
    • SOCIAL MEDIA: Youtube, Facebook, Twitter.
      • PROBLEM: Dark Ads- anonymous posts/ads meant to manipulate people

Campaign Finance

  • Federal Legislation on Campaign Finance
    • FEDERAL ELECTION CAMPAIGN ACT (FECA): Laws to tighten reporting requirements & limit campaign expenditures
    • FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION (FEC): Regulates laws about how much can be donated to a campaign and by whom.
    • BIPARTISAN CAMPAIGN REFORM ACT (BCRA):
      • Banned soft contributions to a national party/candidate
      • Limited hard donations
      • Limited how much an individual could donate to multiple candidates in a 2-year cycle.

Types of PACs

  • Citizens United v. FEC (2010):
    • CONNECTED PACs: Money collected separately through member donations (unions, corporations, trade organizations).
    • NONCONNECTED PACs: Not associated with an organization; collects donations from the public (often for a single-issue)
    • Political Action Committees that raise money in support of a candidate.
    • LEADERSHIP PACs: Organized by a current or former elected official. Collects money from the public; CANNOT fund their own campaign.
    • SUPER PACs: Independent; can raise unlimited BUT cannot contribute directly to a candidate/party. (resulted from Citizens United case).

The Media

  • Media as a Linkage Institution
    • TRADITIONAL PRESS: Newspapers; the Associated Press is one of the oldest & most credible. AP established News Bureaus- offices outside of their headquarters.
    • FREE PRESS: An uninhibited institution that places an additional check on government.
    • INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING: Began during the Progressive Era with Muckrakers; expose corruption, abuse of power, and social ills.
    • NATIONAL POLITICAL NEWS: Newspapers like the Washington post, Wall Street Journal, and New York Times. Radio broadcasts, and TV. ABC, NBC, and CBS were the original “Big Three”.
    • 24-hour news networks: CNN and Fox News.
    • INTERNET: “Born on the Web” news sites like Politico and Huffington Post. Traditional & National newspapers have also gone digital.
    • SOCIAL MEDIA: Provides “easy-to-get” news. Can connect readers with journalists through direct conversations. Allows outreach to organize political events (Women’s March 2017).

Roles and Influence of Media

  • HORSE-RACE JOURNALISM: Journalists who overly use early data to project election results, aka “SCOREKEEPING”.
    • Scorekeeping leads to a popularity contest instead of qualification-based.
  • GATEKEEPING: Setting a news agenda based upon what issues people see as important.
  • WATCHDOGS: Reporters that investigate corruption or poor work and demand answers from elected officials.
    • This has led to an ADVERSARIAL PRESS; they tend to be suspicious of government officials.

Media and the Three Branches

  • POLITICAL REPORTING: Standard, “just-the-facts” types of stories.
    • CONGRESS: News outlets like Roll Call and The Hill; TV news stations have Capitol Hill Correspondents. C-SPAN shows live feed of House & Senate sessions.
    • PRESIDENT: Significant press coverage; press are allowed in the White House & on Air Force One!
      • Relationships between Presidents + Press- GOOD: JFK. BAD: Nixon, Trump.
    • COURTS: High- profile trials and cases are reported on, but cameras are usually not allowed in federal courts.
  • POLITICAL ANALYSIS: Analysis by experts (usually) who help readers/viewers understand complex subjects.

Media Ownership and Bias

  • MEDIA OWNERSHIP:
    • NARROWCASTING: Media outlets with a specific agenda and targeted audience.
      • Fairness Doctrine- a former law that required broadcaster to present opposing viewpoints. (was abolished in 1987)
      • Talk Radio- unrestricted and live political radio (allows for extreme, biased views to be presented).
    • FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (FCC) 1934: Regulates electronic media, content of radio, tv, wire, and satellite broadcasts. It also acts to prevent network ownership monopolies.

Media Bias

  • MEDIA BIAS:
    • MAINSTREAM MEDIA: Traditional, unbiased, and objective news.
      • Traditional Bias- since the Nixon Era, there has been a “left lean” in media. There are also a larger # of news outlets that are left of center.
      • Editorials/Op-Ed: Sections in a newspaper with an opinion- based article.
    • The Growth of Bias Media- “Born on the Web” sites (like Red State and Huffington Post) tend to be more biased and ideologically conservative or liberal.
    • Those who read slanted media are drawn into news stories that fit their views, creating enormous bias.

Media and Democratic Debate

  • INCREASED MEDIA CHOICES:
    • Televised news was only available on the Big Three (ABC, NBC, CBS) at normal times. Now there is 24-hour news coverage on TV, the Internet, and radio.
  • IDEOLOGICALLY ORIENTED PROGRAMMING:
    • Big Liberal Networks: MSNBC and CNN.
    • Big Conservative Network: Fox News Channel.
      • Fox News has the highest ratings.
      • Viewers of Fox News seem to be more easily persuaded= CONFIRMATION BIAS: people will seek out news that amplifies what they already believe.

Media and Consumerism

  • CONSUMER DRIVEN MEDIA:
    • Information outlets act as “Gatekeepers”; their content is influenced by the actions and needs of consumers (Consumer-Driven Media).
    • More consumers = More $$.
  • CREDIBILITY OF NEWS SOURCES:
    • Competition + Consumer Driven Media + Social Media click-baiting + Internet algorithms = LESS CREDIBLE NEWS and voters who become easily manipulated.