History Midterm

Products of the Columbian Exchange: Origins and Impact

• From the Americas to Europe, Africa, and Asia:

  • Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa, tobacco, chili peppers, squash, beans, and cassava.

• From Europe, Africa, and Asia to the Americas:

  • Wheat, rice, sugarcane, coffee, bananas, horses, pigs, cattle, chickens, smallpox, measles.

Significance of the Columbian Exchange

• Potatoes and Corn: High-yield crops that improved diets and supported population growth in Europe and Asia.

• Cash Crops: Sugar and tobacco enriched colonial economies but fueled slavery.

• Diseases: Decimated Indigenous populations, easing European colonization.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Abolition Movement

• Slave Trade: Millions of Africans forcibly transported to the Americas to work in plantations.

• Abolition Movement: Enlightenment ideas, activism by figures like William Wilberforce and Frederick Douglass, led to slavery’s decline in the 19th century.

Timeline of the Moderate Phase of the French Revolution

1. 1789: Estates-General convened; National Assembly formed; Tennis Court Oath; Fall of the Bastille.

2. 1790: Civil Constitution of the Clergy limits Church power.

3. 1791: Flight to Varennes; Constitution establishes a constitutional monarchy.

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Social Inequality: The rigid division of the Three Estates.

2. Economic Crisis: National debt, poor harvests, and food scarcity.

3. Enlightenment Ideas: Push for equality, liberty, and fraternity.

4. Weak Leadership: Louis XVI’s indecisiveness and failure to reform.

The Three Estates

1. First Estate: Clergy (privileged, tax-exempt, landowners).

2. Second Estate: Nobility (owned land, held government positions).

3. Third Estate: Commoners (97% of the population, taxed heavily).

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

• Adopted in 1789.

• Promoted equality, freedom of speech, religion, and due process.

• Inspired by Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Locke.

Women and the French Revolution: Gains and Losses

• Gains: Women's political activism; March on Versailles.

• Losses: Limited rights, marginalization in political reforms, execution of figures like Olympe de Gouges.

Napoleon’s Rise to Power

• Gained prominence through military victories.

• Overthrew the Directory in 1799 (Coup of 18 Brumaire).

• Crowned himself Emperor in 1804.

Resistance to Napoleon Across Europe

• Nationalist uprisings in Spain and Germany.

• Economic resistance to the Continental System.

• Coalition wars by Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia.

Lasting Impacts of the French Revolution

• End of absolute monarchy in France.

• Promotion of secular governance and nationalism.

• Legal equality through Napoleonic Code.

Key Figures and Concepts

1. Bourgeoisie: Wealthy middle class; leaders of revolutionary ideas.

2. Marquis de Lafayette: Drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

3. Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette: Symbols of monarchy; both executed.

4. Jacobins: Radical revolutionaries led by Robespierre.

5. Sans-Culottes: Working-class revolutionaries advocating for democracy.

6. Robespierre: Architect of the Reign of Terror.

7. Napoleonic Code: Codified laws ensuring equality, property rights.

8. Olympe de Gouges: Advocate for women’s rights, executed during the Revolution.

9. Guillotine: Execution tool, symbol of the Reign of Terror.

Industrial Revolution: Causes and Effects

• Causes: Agricultural revolution, natural resources, capital investment, labor supply, technological innovations.

• Effects: Urbanization, rise of factories, class divisions, environmental impact.

Inventions of the Industrial Revolution

• Steam Engine (James Watt): Revolutionized transport and industry.

• Spinning Jenny: Boosted textile production.

• Cotton Gin (Eli Whitney): Accelerated cotton processing.

Economic Systems

1. Capitalism: Private ownership, profit-driven economy.

2. Utilitarianism: Policies for the greatest happiness of the greatest number.

3. Communism: Classless society; theorized by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Social Changes

1. Middle vs. Working Class: Economic disparities, lifestyle differences.

2. Gradual Improvements: Labor laws, unions, better wages, working conditions.

3. Cult of Domesticity: Emphasis on women’s domestic roles.

4. Women’s Suffrage: Movements for voting rights led by activists like Emmeline Pankhurst.

Scientific and Social Ideas

• Charles Darwin: Theory of evolution by natural selection.

• Social Darwinism: Misapplied Darwin’s ideas to justify imperialism and racism.

• Temperance Movement: Advocated for moderation or prohibition of alcohol.

Industrial Revolution and Imperialism

• Technological advancements supported colonization, military dominance, and resource exploitation.

Imperialism in Africa and Asia

1. Berlin Conference (1884-85): Divided African territories among European powers.

2. Christianity: Missionaries promoted faith alongside imperial goals.

3. Islam: Integral to African history, challenged by European colonization.

Key Events and Figures

• King Leopold: Exploited Congo’s resources for rubber production.

• Civilizing Mission: Justification for European imperialism.

• Declining Islamic Empires: Ottoman, Mughal, and Safavid decline.

Imperialism in Specific Regions

1. Egypt: Modernization under Muhammad Ali; Suez Canal construction.

2. Crimean War (1853-1856): Conflict over influence in Ottoman territories.

3. Persia: Center of "The Great Game" between Britain and Russia.

4. The Young Turks: Reformers in the late Ottoman Empire.

India and British Rule

1. British East India Company: Controlled trade and governance.

2. Sepoy Rebellion (1857): Indian uprising against British policies.

3. British Raj: Direct British rule in India post-rebellion.

China and Japan

1. Opium War (1839-1842): British trade disputes led to Chinese defeat.

2. Taiping Rebellion: Anti-Qing uprising; massive casualties.

Meiji Restoration (1868): Japan’s rapid industrialization and modernization.