Ch 17 Textbook
MGT Ch 17
17-1: The Interpersonal Nature of Organizations
A great deal of what all managers do involves interacting with other people, both directly and indirectly and both inside and outside of the organization
Interpersonal relations, communication, and group processes are a pervasive part of all organizations and a vital part of all managerial activities
17-1a: Interpersonal Dynamics
The nature of interpersonal relations in an organization is as varied as the individual members themselves
At one extreme, interpersonal relations can be personal and positive; this occurs when the parties know each other, have mutual respect and affection, and enjoy interacting
At the other extreme, interpersonal dynamics can be personal but negative; this most likely occurs when the parties dislike each other, do not have mutual respect, and do not enjoy interacting
In these situations, in order for the people to interact productively, that negative interpersonal perception must be overcome
Most interactions fall between these extremes, as members of the organization interact in a professional way focused primarily on goal accomplishment
The interaction deals with the job at hand, is relatively formal and structured, and is task directed
These different types of interactions may occur between individuals, between groups, or between individuals and groups, and they can change over time
17-1b: Outcomes of Interpersonal Behaviors
A variety of things can happen as a result of interpersonal behaviors
Many perspectives on motivation suggest that people have social needs
Interpersonal relations in organizations can be a primary source of need satisfaction for many people
For a person with a strong need for affiliation, high-quality interpersonal relations can be an important positive element in the workplace; however, when this same person is confronted with poor-quality working relationships, the effect can be just as strong but in the other direction
Interpersonal relations also serve as a solid basis for social support
Good interpersonal relations throughout an organization can also be a source of synergy; people who support one another and who work well together can accomplish much more than people who do not support one another and do not work well together
Another outcome, implied earlier, is conflict- people may leave an interpersonal exchange feeling angry or hostile
Finally, from a managerial perspective, strong interpersonal relationships with employees allow managers to know how employees will react to specific challenges, where their strengths lie, and what strategies for motivation of employees will be successful
But a common thread is woven through all of these outcomes: communication between people in the organization
17-2: Communication and the Manager’s Job
A typical day for a manager includes doing desk work, attending scheduled meetings, placing and receiving telephone calls, reading and answering correspondence, attending unscheduled meetings, and making tours; most of these activities involve communication
In fact, managers usually spend over half their time on some form of communication
Communication always involves two or more people, so other behavioral processes- such as motivation, leadership, and group and team interactions- all come into play
Top executives must handle communication effectively if they are to be true leaders
17-2a: The Problems with Communication
To us, our communication is perfect, because to us it makes perfect sense, yet the challenge in communication is to make what makes sense to us also make sense to others; that takes more effort than we may initially imagine
The second, and equally troubling, problem with communication is that we have been doing it all our lives
As the old saying goes, “Practice makes perfect,” and if that statement was true then we all should be experts after years of practicing communication every day; the problem is that we are not
Communication takes a significant amount of thought, planning, and work; furthermore, the work never really ends
The reason for this is that in every situation we face, and every communication partner that we interact with, is different; so, what worked for us in the past is not a guarantee of what will work in the present
To be successful, we must endeavor to gain an ever greater understanding of what makes communication successful and work diligently each day to improve
17-2b: A Definition of Communication
Communication: the process of transmitting information from one person to another
Effective communication: the process of sending a message in such a way that the message received is as close in meaning as possible to the message intended
Our definition of effective communication is based on the ideas of meaning and consistency of meaning
Meaning is the idea that the individual who initiates the communication exchange wishes to convey
In effective communication, the meaning is transmitted in such a way that the receiving person understands it
It is important to realize that communication is never perfect in that none of us has the capacity to read another person’s mind; thus, we can never see or experience things in the exact same way as someone else
However, by working to create common methods to facilitate understanding, we can facilitate enough meaning exchange to make understanding possible
One of the main ways that we do this is through the use of common language
17-2c: The Role of Communication in Management
Meetings, telephone calls, emails, texts, and various other kinds of correspondence are all a necessary part of every manager’s job- and all clearly involve communication
Each of the 10 basic managerial roles would be impossible to accomplish without communication
Interpersonal roles involve interacting with supervisors, subordinates, peers, and others outside the organization
Decisional roles require managers to seek out information to use in making decisions and then communicate those decisions to others
Informational roles focus specifically on acquiring and disseminating information
Communication also relates directly to the basic management functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling
Environmental scanning, integrating planning-time horizons, and decision making all necessitate communication
Delegation, coordination, and organization change and development also entail communication
Developing reward systems and interacting with subordinates as a part of the leading function would be impossible without some form of communication
And communication is essential to establishing standards, monitoring performance, and taking corrective actions as a part of control
Clearly, then, communication is a pervasive part of virtually all managerial activities
17-2d: The Communication Process
The process of communication begins when one person (the sender) wants to transmit a fact, idea, opinion, or other information to someone else (the receiver)
This fact, idea, or opinion has meaning to the sender, whether it be simple and concrete or complex and abstract
The next step is to encode the meaning into a form appropriate to the situation
The encoding might take the form of words, facial expressions, gestures, or even artistic expressions and physical actions
The choice of how to encode the message is a very conscious decision based on the sender’s knowledge of the situation and the receiver
The sender must also make sure that the message has enough information that it will not be misinterpreted by the receiver
Clearly, the encoding process is influenced by the content of the message, the familiarity of sender and receiver, and other situational factors
After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or medium
The channel is most simply defined as the method for transmission that we choose to use when communicating
Common channels in organizations include meetings, email or text messages, memos, letters, reports, telephone calls, and face-to-face interactions
After the message is received, it is decoded by the receiver, who then interprets the meaning to the best of his or her ability
The consistency of meaning transmission can vary dramatically
In many cases, the meaning prompts a response, and the cycle is continued when a new message is sent by the same steps back to the original sender
Communication is never perfect and often requires several attempts to get it right
It is also vital to understand the concept of “noise”; noise is any phenomenon that may disrupt communication anywhere along the way
Noise comes in two varieties: internal and external
External noise is noise that is outside of the individuals involved in the communication interaction: the sound of someone coughing, a truck driving by, or two people talking close at hand
It can also include disruptions such as a letter lost in the mail, an interrupted cellphone call, an email misrouted or infected with a virus, or a text not being received because of poor service
Internal noise is noise that is “inside” of one of the individuals in the interaction that causes them to be distracted and makes sending and decoding messages difficult
17-3: Forms of Communication in Organizations
Managers need to understand several kinds of communication that are common in organizations today; these include interpersonal communication, communication in networks and teams, organizational communication, and virtual communication
17-3a: Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication generally takes one of three typologies: oral, nonverbal, and written
Oral communication: takes place in conversations, group discussions, telephone calls, Skype, Zoom, FaceTime, or other situations in which the spoken word is used to express meaning
Oral communication is so prevalent for several reasons; the primary advantage of oral communication is that it promotes prompt feedback and interchange in the form of verbal questions or agreement, facial expressions, and gestures
Due to the numerous kinds of immediate feedback, oral communication is often referred to as being “rich” in that there are numerous communication channels occurring simultaneously
This richness allows participants to immediately determine if their message has been received and interpreted correctly or if further clarification is necessary
Oral communication is also easy (all the sender needs to do is talk), and it can be done with little preparation (though careful preparation is advisable in certain situations)
The sender does not need pencil and paper, a printer, or other equipment
However, oral communication also has drawbacks; it may suffer from problems of inaccuracy if the speaker chooses the wrong words to convey meaning or leaves out pertinent details, if noise disrupts the process, or if the receiver forgets part of the message
In a two-way discussion, there is seldom time for a thoughtful, considered response or for introducing many new facts and, unless there is some form of recording being used, there is no permanent record of what has been said
In addition, although most managers are comfortable talking to people individually or in small groups, fewer enjoy speaking to larger audiences
Nonverbal communication: a communication exchange that does not use words or uses words to carry more meaning than the strict definition of the words themselves
Nonverbal communication is a powerful but little understood form of communication in organizations; it often relies on facial expressions, body movements, physical contact, proximity between communicators, and gestures
Research has identified three kinds of nonverbal communication practiced by managers: images, settings, and body language
In this context, images are the kinds of words or phrases people elect to use
Our choice of words conveys much more than just the strict meaning of the words themselves
Extending the image concept a bit further, not only are the words we choose important in determining how meaning will be interpreted, but other aspects play into our choices as well
Our tone and volume convey vastly different meanings depending on how we use them
The setting for communication also plays a major role in nonverbal communication; boundaries, familiarity, the home turf, and other elements of the setting are all important
Much has been written about the symbols of power in organizations; the size and location of an office, the kinds of furniture in the office, and the accessibility of the person in the office all communicate useful information
A third form of nonverbal communication is body language; the distance we stand from someone as we speak, known as proxemics, has meaning
In the United States, standing very close to someone you are talking to generally signals either familiarity or aggression
Eye contact is another effective means of nonverbal communication; prolonged eye contact might suggest either hostility or romantic interest, whereas a lack of eye contact can be associated with dishonesty or disinterest
Other kinds of body language include body and hand movement, pauses in speech, and mode of dress
The manager should be aware of the importance of nonverbal communication and recognize its potential impact
Giving an employee good news about a reward with the wrong nonverbal cues can destroy the reinforcement value of the reward; likewise, reprimanding an employee but providing inconsistent nonverbal cues can limit the effectiveness of the sanctions
The tone of the message, where and how the message is delivered, facial expressions, and gestures can all amplify or weaken the message or change the message altogether
Emoticons also play a growing role in nonverbal communication
In an email or text the context clues provided by facial expressions are lost; but now, people can attach emoticons- smiling faces, frowning faces, winks, and so forth- to emails, texts, or other digital messages to convey additional information
“Putting it in writing” in a letter, report, memorandum, handwritten note, or email or text message can solve many of the problems inherent in oral communication
Written communication: not as common as one might imagine, nor is it a mode of communication much respected by managers
The biggest single drawback of traditional forms of written communication is that they inhibit feedback and interchange
This lack of immediate feedback to the message is often referred to as message “leanness”
When one manager sends another manager a letter, it must be written or dictated, printed, mailed, received, routed, opened, and read; if there is a misunderstanding, it may take several days for it to be recognized, let alone rectified
Although the use of email or texts is, of course, much faster, both sender and receiver must still have access to a computer or other device, and the receiver must open and read the message for it to actually be received
The lag time between the sending of a message and receiving feedback from it can, and in many cases does, result in inaccurate interpretation of the original sender’s meaning; thus, written communication often inhibits feedback and interchange and is usually more difficult and time consuming than oral communication
Written communication offers some advantages; it is often very accurate and provides a permanent record of the exchange
The sender can take the time to collect and assimilate the information and can draft and revise it before it is transmitted
This process allows the sender to carefully consider both the content of the message and how the receiver is likely to interpret the message as written
When done skillfully, the ability to strategically construct a message can be a powerful way of making sure a message is received as intended; the receiver can take the time to read it carefully and can refer to it repeatedly, as needed
For these reasons, written communication is generally preferable when important details are involved or in situations in which the receiver will likely need to reference the details of the message repeatedly
At times it is important to one or both parties to have a written record available as evidence of exactly what took place
The best medium of interpersonal communication will be determined by the situation
Oral communication is most effective when the richness of the message is of the greatest importance and immediate feedback is needed in order to make sure that the sender’s message has been interpreted correctly
Less formal written communication such as email or text messaging is often preferred when the message is personal, nonroutine, and brief
However, email has played a prominent role in several recent court cases, so managers should always use discretion when sending messages electronically
More formal written communication is usually best when the message is more impersonal, routine, and longer
The manager can also combine media to capitalize on the advantages of each
Digital communication blurs the differences between oral and written communication and can help each be more effective; in some instances, digital communication itself is also the most appropriate way to send a message
17-3b: Communication in Networks and Work Teams
Although communication among team members in an organization is clearly interpersonal in nature, substantial research also focuses specifically on how people in networks and work teams communicate with one another
Communication network: the pattern through which the members of a group or team communicate
Researchers studying group dynamics have identified several typical networks in groups and teams consisting of three, four, and five members
In the wheel pattern, all communication flows through one central person, who is probably the group’s leader; in a sense, the wheel is the most centralized network because one person receives and disseminates all information
The Y pattern is slightly less centralized- two people are close to the center
The chain offers a more even flow of information among members, although two people (the ones at each end) interact with only one other person; this path is closed in the circle pattern
Finally, the all-channel network, the most decentralized, allows a free flow of information among all group members; everyone participates equally, and the group’s leader, if there is one, is not likely to have excessive power
Research conducted on networks suggests some interesting connections between the type of network and group performance
When the group’s task is relatively simple and routine, centralized networks tend to perform with greatest efficiency and accuracy; the dominant leader facilitates performance by coordinating the flow of information
When the task is complex and nonroutine, such as making a major decision about organizational strategy, decentralized networks tend to be most effective because open channels of communication permit more interaction and a more efficient sharing of relevant information
Managers should recognize the effects of communication networks on group and organizational performance and should try to structure networks appropriately
17-3c: Organizational Communication
Still other forms of communication in organizations are those that flow among and between organizational units or groups
Each of these involves oral or written communication, but also extends to broad patterns of communication across the organization
Two of these forms of communication follow vertical and horizontal linkages in the organization
Vertical communication: communication that flows up and down the organization, usually along formal reporting lines- that is, it is the communication that takes place between managers and their superiors and subordinates
Vertical communication may involve only two people, or it may flow through several different organizational levels
Upward communication consists of messages from subordinates to superiors; this flow is usually from subordinates to their direct superior, then to that person’s direct superior, and so on up the hierarchy
Occasionally, a message might bypass a particular superior
The typical content of upward communication is requests, information that the lower-level manager thinks is of importance to the higher-level manager, responses to requests from the higher-level manager, suggestions, complaints, and financial information
Research has shown that upward communication is more subject to distortion than is downward communication
Subordinates may tend to withhold or distort information that makes them look bad; the greater the degree of difference in status between superior and subordinate and the greater the degree of distrust, the more likely the subordinate is to suppress or distort information
Finally, it should also be noted than with regard to oral retelling of a message, the more individuals that the message passes through, the more the message is prone to distortion from one telling to the next; thus, as a message moves from one level of the organization to the other, the original sender’s meaning is ever more prone to distortion
Downward communication occurs when information flows down the hierarchy from superiors to subordinates
The typical content of these messages is directives on how something is to be done, the assignment of new responsibilities, performance feedback, and general information that the higher-level manager thinks will be of value to the lower-level manager
Vertical communication can and usually should be two-way in nature; in other words, give and take communication with active feedback is generally likely to be more effective than one way communication
Horizontal communication: involves colleagues and peers at the same level of the organization
This type of communication serves a number of purposes; it facilitates coordination among interdependent units
Horizontal communication can also be used for joint problem solving
Finally, horizontal communication plays a major role in work teams with members drawn from several departments
17-3d: Digital Communication
Digital communication has become the norm in organizations today
Both formal information systems and personal information technology have reshaped how managers communicate with one another
Most larger business manage at least a portion of their organizational communication through information systems; some firms go so far as to create a position for chief information officer, or CIO
The CIO is responsible for determining the information-processing needs and requirements of the organization and then putting in place systems that facilitate smooth and efficient organizational communication
Part of the CIO’s efforts also involves the creation of one or more formal information systems linking all relevant managers, departments, and facilities in the organization; most enterprise resource planning systems play this role very effectively
An effective formal information system allows the manager to get the information more quickly, and probably more accurately, by plugging directly into a computerized information system
In the last decade, the nature of organizational communication has changed dramatically, mainly because of breakthroughs in personal electronic communication technology, and the future promises even more change
Email networks, the internet, corporate intranets, social networking sites, wireless communication systems, social media platforms, and other breakthroughs are carrying communication technology even further
It is also becoming common to have teleconferences in which managers stay at their own locations (such as home offices or offices in different cities) but meet via Skype, Microsoft Team, Zoom, and similar methods
The new technologies are behind the rise of a new version of an old work arrangement- the cottage industry; in a cottage industry, people work at home (in their “cottage”) and periodically bring the products of their labors in to the company
Telecommuting is the label given to a new electronic cottage industry; in telecommuting, people work at home on their computers or other devices and transmit their work to their companies digitally
Mobile phones have also made it even easier for managers to communicate with one another
Psychologists, however, are beginning to associate some problems with these communication advances; for one thing, managers who are seldom in their “real” offices are likely to fall behind in the inner workings of the organization and may even be victimized by organizational politics because they are not present to keep in touch with what is going on
They drop out of the organizational grapevine and miss out on much of the informal communication that takes place
Moreover, the use of digital communication at the expense of face to face meetings and conversations makes it hard to build a strong culture, develop solid working relationships, and create a mutually supportive atmosphere of trust and cooperativeness
Finally, digital communication has also opened up new avenues for dysfunctional employee behavior
17-4: Informal Communication in Organizations
The forms of organizational communication discussed previously all represent planned and relatively formal communication mechanisms
However, in many cases some of the communication that takes place in an organization transcends these formal channels and instead follows any of several informal methods
Common forms of informal communication in organizations include the grapevine and management by wandering around
17-4a: The Grapevine
Grapevine: an informal communication network that can permeate an entire organization
Grapevines are found in all organizations except the very smallest, but they do not always follow the same patterns as, nor do they necessarily coincide with, formal channels of authority and communication
Research has identified several kinds of grapevines
The gossip chain occurs when one person spreads the message to many other people; each one, in turn, may either keep the information confidential or pass it on to others
The gossip chain is likely to carry personal information
The other common grapevine is the cluster chain, in which one person passes the information to a selected few individuals; some of the receivers pass the information to a few other individuals; the rest keep it to themselves
There is some disagreement about how accurate the information carried by the grapevine is, but research is increasingly finding it to be fairly accurate, especially when the information is based on fact rather than speculation
Informal communication is increasing in many organizations for several basic reasons; one contributing factor is the recent increase in merger, acquisition, and takeover activity
Because such activity can greatly affect the people within an organization, it follows that they may spend more time talking about it
The second contributing factor is that as more and more corporations move facilities from inner cities to suburbs, employees tend to talk less and less to others outside the organization and more and more to one another
Yet another contributing factor is simply the widespread availability of information technology that makes it easier than ever before for people to communicate quickly and easily
Attempts to eliminate the grapevine are not likely to succeed, but fortunately the manager does have some control over it
By maintaining open channels of communication and responding vigorously to inaccurate information, the manager can minimize the damage the grapevine can do
And if used carefully, in some situations the grapevine can actually be an asset; by learning who the key people in the grapevine are, the manager can use it to sound out employee reactions to new ideas, such as a change in human resource policies or benefit packages
The manager can also get valuable information from the grapevine and use it to improve decision making
17-4b: Management by Wandering Around
Management by wandering around: the basic idea is that some managers keep in touch with what is going on by wandering around and talking with people- immediate subordinates, subordinates far down the organizational hierarchy, delivery people, customers, or anyone else who is involved with the company in some way
A related form of organizational communication that really has no specific term is simply the informal interchange that takes place outside the normal work setting
For this type of communication, there is no set agenda, and the key topics of discussion vary from group to group and from day to day; still, the social gatherings serve an important role
They promote a strong culture and enhance understanding of how the organization works
17-5: Managing Organizational Communication
In view of the importance and pervasiveness of communication in organizations, it is vital for managers to understand how to manage the communication process
Managers should understand how to maximize the potential benefits of communication and minimize the potential problems
17-5a: Barriers to Communication
Several factors may disrupt the communication process or serve as barriers to effective communication; these may be divided into two classes: individual barriers and organizational barriers
Several individual barriers may disrupt effective communication; one common problem is conflicting or inconsistent signals
In many cases, this kind of inconsistency in message results in employees who are reluctant to communicate at all, bringing about a lack of vertical communication that eventually results in information not being available to the people that need it most
Another barrier is lack of credibility
Credibility problems may arise when the sender is not considered a reliable source of information; he may not be trusted or may not be perceived as knowledgeable about the subject at hand
Some people are simply reluctant to initiate a communication exchange; this reluctance may occur for a variety of reasons
For managers to maintain open lines of communication, these areas of reluctance must be overcome
While bad news is always unpleasant, it is still essential to get the news in the hands of the people who can come together as a team and work to make the necessary corrections
The key to overcoming reluctance is to create a culture in which bad news is viewed as a challenge that the team must work together in order to overcome rather than simply an end point after which someone has to be disciplined
Establishing this kind of cultural perspective rests in the hands of managers and how they communicate about how bad news will be handled by the organization as well as their ability to consistently follow through on that plan
Poor listening habits can be a major barrier to effective communication
Some people are simply poor listeners; because they are not concentrating on what is being said, they may not comprehend part or all of the message
They may even think that they really are paying attention, only to realize later that they cannot remember parts of the conversation
Receivers may also bring certain predispositions to the communication process; they may already have their minds made up, firmly set in a certain way
Other barriers to effective communication involve the organizational context in which the communication occurs
Semantics problems arise when words have different meanings for different people; words and phrases such as profit, increased output, and return on investment may have positive meanings for managers but less positive meanings for labor
Communication problems may also arise when people of different power or status try to communicate with each other
If people perceive a situation differently, they may have difficulty communicating with one another
Environmental factors may also disrupt effective communication
Overload may be a problem when the receiver is being sent more information than he or she can effectively handle
Finally, as businesses become more and more global, different languages can create problems; to counter this problem, some firms are adopting an “official language”
17-4b: Improving Communication Effectiveness
Considering how many factors can disrupt communication, it is fortunate that managers can resort to several techniques for improving communication effectiveness
These techniques include both individual and organizational skills
The single most important individual skill for improving communication effectiveness is being a good listener
Being a good listener requires that the person be prepared to listen, not interrupt the speaker, concentrate on both the words and the meaning being conveyed, be patient, and ask questions as appropriate
This concept is known as “active listening”, and as the definition suggests, to be effective the listener must be an active participant in the conversation
The higher the level of the listener’s engagement in the conversation, the more likely the listener is to understand, retain, and productively respond to the information received
Active listening requires conscious effort on the part of the listener, and doing it for extended periods is mentally fatiguing
However, the efforts are worth it as it allows the receiver to verify that the message received was the message intended
In addition to being a good listener, several other individual skills can promote effective communication
Feedback, one of the most important, is facilitated by two-way communication
Two-way communication allows the receiver to ask questions, request clarification, summarize their understanding of information that they receive, and express opinions that let the sender know whether he or she has been understood
In general, the more complicated the message, the more useful two-way communication is
In addition, the sender should be aware of the meanings that different receivers might attach to various words
Furthermore, the sender should try to maintain credibility; this can be accomplished by not pretending to be an expert when one is not, by “doing one’s homework” and checking facts, and by otherwise being as accurate and honest as possible
Additionally, because nobody is correct all the time, when mistakes are made, credibility can be maintained if managers take ownership of their mistakes
The sender should also try to be sensitive to the receiver’s perspective
Finally, the receiver should also try to be sensitive to the sender’s point of view
Three useful organizational skills can also enhance communication effectiveness for both the sender and the receiver- following up, regulating information flow, and understanding the richness of different media
Following up simply involves checking at a later time to be sure that a message has been received and understood
Regulating information flow means that the sender or receiver takes steps to ensure that overload does not occur
For the sender, this could mean not passing too much information through the system at one time
For the receiver, it might mean calling attention the fact that he is being asked to do too many things at once
Both parties should also understand the richness associated with different media