Per 7 Class Final Exam Review

Definition: A system of rights or justice common to all humans, derived from nature.
It includes universal moral principles and ethical guidelines applicable regardless of culture or background.
Principles often emphasize individual rights, freedom, and equality.
Influences human rights, moral foundations, and legal justice systems.
Supports social justice movements, advocating for equality (e.g., gender equality, abolition of slavery).
Provides a basis for critiquing unjust laws.
Related to theories of moral development (Kohlberg, Piaget).

Scientists emphasized reason and explanation, questioning established beliefs.
The scientific method involves experiments and hypotheses.
Mathematics was used as a tool to study the universe, providing concrete evidence for claims.

Portugal's position on the Atlantic coast aided exploration; They invested in navigation technology such as the compass developed a school for navigation, led by Prince Henry the Navigator.
Portuguese explorers like Bartolomeu Dias (reached the Cape of Good Hope) and Vasco da Gama (reached India) established direct sea routes to Asia.

Spain sponsored Columbus to find new trade routes to Asia for spices and riches, expand power after uniting the country, spread Christianity, compete against Portugal, gain colonies, and acquire more natural resources.

Allowed Spain to conquer new lands.
Columbus returned to Spain in 1493 with foods and animals.
Initiated a global exchange, leading to new diets, decline of indigenous populations, modernization, new ideas, beliefs, traditions, and languages, opportunities for entrepreneurs, and the transfer of ideas and technology.
Facilitated the adaptation of inventions and languages from Asia and the Americas.

Conquistadors conquered large empires due to superior weapons, horses, armor, diseases (like smallpox which decimated native populations), manipulation of natives, inside information from local groups, exploiting local rivalries, and advanced technology.

The Columbian Exchange involved the exchange of plants, goods, ideas, and animals between the New World (Americas) and the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia).
New crops from the Americas improved European diets and fostered population growth. European livestock improved agriculture.
Diseases brought by Europeans caused widespread death among native populations.

The Commercial Revolution (1500s-1700s) in Europe involved economic growth through trade and colonies.
Features included the expansion of trade and overseas empires, growth of capitalism, an increase in entrepreneurs, a shift from local European economies to an international trading system, new business methods.
The Commercial Revolution laid the foundation for the Industrial Revolution.

Absolute Monarchy: A form of government where a ruler has complete control over a country’s government and people.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) was fought primarily in Central Europe between Catholics and Protestants, involving the Holy Roman Empire, France, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, and others. It resulted in the recognition of the independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland.
The rise of monarchies occurred in the late middle ages (around 1450-1700), leading to centralized states in Europe, increased population, and the end of feudalism. Louis XI consolidated power in France.
Divine Right of Kings: The belief that a ruler's right to rule is given by God.
Louis XIV (1643-1715), the

Sun King, believed in divine right; controlled nobles by requiring them to live at Versailles; revoked the Edict of Nantes which had granted religious freedom to Protestants.

From monarchy to republic to monarchy. The English Civil War led to the execution of Charles I. After a brief republican experiment under Oliver Cromwell, the monarchy was restored, but with limits on its power.
Glorious Revolution (1688): James II was removed from the throne and replaced by William and Mary. The English Bill of Rights (1689) established a limited monarchy and protected individual rights.
Habeas Corpus: protected people from being held in prison unlawfully.

Intellectual Movement: The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emphasized reason and individualism.

Thomas Hobbes believed that people could not govern themselves and that a monarch with absolute power would protect life best
- Advocated for rule of law
- Social contract with government: some freedoms sacrificed (respecting government) in exchange for government protection
John Locke argued that people have natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and that government should protect these rights. If the government fails to do so, the people have the right to revolt.
- Advocated for democracy
- Believed the government's power came from the people it governed
Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers in government to prevent tyranny.
Voltaire advocated for freedom of speech and religion.
Rousseau believed that people are naturally good, but society corrupts them, and that government should be based on the consent of the governed.
- Social Contract: governments operate with the consent of the people, not divine right
Mary Wollstonecraft advocated for women's rights and education.

Revolutions in the Americas and France: The Enlightenment inspired revolutions in the Americas and France, as people sought to overthrow oppressive governments and establish more democratic societies.
Belief in Progress: Enlightenment thinkers believed in the possibility of progress and improvement in society.