Chapter 7 – Founding a Nation, 1783–1791 (Slide-by-Slide Notes)
Page 5: America under the Confederation
Focus Question: What were the achievements and problems of the Confederation government?
Core idea: The United States operated under the Articles of Confederation after independence, a loose union that created a national government but granted most powers to the states. This arrangement achieved some coordination but faced significant structural weaknesses that hampered governance and economic recovery.
Key points
Confederation framework
The Articles of Confederation was the first written constitution of the U.S. and established a one-house (unicameral) Congress.
There was no separate executive branch (no president) under the national government.
Power resided largely in the states; the national government lacked a strong centralized authority.
Achievements under the Confederation
Managed victory in the American Revolution and negotiated for peace with Britain (Treaty of Paris 1783).
Created a framework for western expansion and land settlement (embodied in subsequent Land Ordinances).
Problems and weaknesses
No independent executive or judiciary to enforce laws; Congress had limited enforcement power.
No authority to levy taxes or regulate interstate/foreign commerce; the national government depended on voluntary state donations.
Difficulty in passing legislation: required supermajorities; amendments required unanimous consent in many cases (
through the Articles, major reforms needed all states’ agreement).Financial troubles: war debt accumulation and lack of a stable monetary system; currency issues and inflation plagued the new nation.
The Road to Reform
Economic stress and domestic unrest (e.g., Shays’s Rebellion) highlighted the fragility of the Articles and spurred calls for a stronger central government.
Page 6: Confederation Government
Core definition: The Articles of Confederation functioned as the first written constitution of the United States and established a loose, national government with a single-chamber Congress.
Structure summary
Legislature: One-house Congress (unicameral).
Executive: No national president or executive branch.
Judicial: No national judiciary.
Implications
Central authority was limited to areas expressly delegated by the states (e.g., defense, foreign policy, coinage).
States retained significant sovereignty and autonomy in most policy areas.
Legislative decisions often required broad consensus and faced internal obstacles, contributing to governance difficulties.
Page 7: The West
Focus: The West, its settlement, governance, and the role of Congress in shaping western expansion.
Key ideas
Congress and the West: The national government sought to regulate settlement and manage land sales to support national development.
Settlers and the West: Encouraged westward migration, balancing growth with land policy and territorial administration.
Page 8: Farm Families Moving West
Focus: The social and economic dynamics of rural families migrating westward.
Key points
Family mobility and agricultural expansion drove settlement patterns.
Westward movement reshaped demographic and political landscapes of new territories.
Page 9: Regulating Sale and Settlement
Core topic: Land policy as a tool to organize expansion and generate revenue for the new nation.
Land Ordinances overview
Ordinance of 1784
Ordinance of 1785
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Significance
These ordinances established methods for surveying, selling, and governing western lands.
Laid groundwork for orderly western expansion, property rights, and territorial governance.
Page 10: Western Ordinances, 1784 to 1787
Map/graphics depict the organization of land and claims across the Northwest Territory.
Key technical details (surveying and land division)
Townships and ranges: the mature system of land surveying used to parcel western lands.
Township dimensions: each township is a square of side length 6 miles.
Area of a township:
Land divisions within a township
Each township contains 36 sections.
Each section:
Section 16: income reserved for school support (public education funding).
Section subdivision (for smaller parcels)
Quarter-section:
Half-section:
Quarter-quarter-section (40 acres each) within a quarter-section
Overall layout featured the Seven Ranges and systematic land allocation to support orderly settlement and revenue.
Geographic scope
Northwest Territory spanned areas that would become multiple states (e.g., Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, part of Minnesota, etc.).
Distinct reference points include the Great Lakes and surrounding regions, with U.S. territorial claims competing with British, Spanish, and Native claims.
Page 11: European Claims and Selected Native Nations, 1780s-1790s
Focus: The geopolitical landscape in North America after independence, including colonial and Native nations.
Key actors and regions
European powers: British in Canada; Spanish in Florida and parts of the Gulf coast.
Native Nations: Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Miami, Shawnee, Cherokee, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek), Sauk, Fox, Huron, Ottawa, Wyandotte, Mingo, Oneida, Mohawk, and others.
Major geographic references include Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, St. Lawrence River, Northwest Territory, and the Ohio River.
Significance
Native nations and European powers maintained complex alliances and contested borders with U.S. expansion; these interactions shaped treaties, land claims, and future conflicts.
Page 12: Native Responses to U.S. Land Claims
Key idea: Native nations positioned themselves diplomatically and militarily in response to U.S. land claims.
Topics
Dangerous Neighbors: Tensions and conflicts on the frontier.
Native nations in the South and in the Ohio Valley: Varied responses to encroachment, including alliances, resistance, and negotiation.
Page 13: Problems with the Articles of Confederation
Core weaknesses highlighted
Structural flaws of the Confederation hindered governance, economic development, and national unity.
Shays’s Rebellion serves as a pivotal example, demonstrating the national government's inability to quell domestic unrest and manage debt and taxation efficiently.
Page 14: A Bankruptcy Scene
Illustration of financial distress and the economic fragility under the Articles.
Takeaway: Financial instability underscored the need for a stronger central government and more effective monetary policy.
Page 15: Nationalism
Focus: Emergence of nationalist leaders who advocated for a stronger federation.
Key figures
James Madison
Alexander Hamilton
Conceptual shift: From revolutionary ideas to a pragmatic push for a robust constitutional framework that could sustain the nation.
Page 16: James Madison
Focus: Madison as a leading nationalist voice.
Contributions
Advocated for a stronger federal government, checks and balances, and a constitutional framework to manage representation and liberty.
Page 17: Alexander Hamilton
Focus: Hamilton as a leading nationalist voice.
Contributions
Emphasized a powerful central government, a robust economic program, and a synthesis of federal authority to drive national growth.
Page 18: A New Constitution
Focus Question: What major disagreements and compromises molded the final content of the Constitution?
Core idea: The drafting of a new framework required resolving significant conflicts between large and small states, northern and southern states, and between advocates of strong centralized power and advocates of states’ rights.
Page 19: Constitutional Convention
Structure of government debates
Virginia Plan: Proposed a strong national government with bicameral legislature, proportional representation by state population (favored larger states).
New Jersey Plan: Proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation for states (favored smaller states).
Result: Compromise formed a framework that balanced state sovereignty with a stronger central authority.
Page 20: Revolutionary Currency
Primary source: Continental Currency note (50 Dollars) with a declaration of value and exchange terms.
Context
The Continental Congress issued paper money to finance the war, but it depreciated rapidly after the war due to lack of hard currency backing and rampant inflation.
Takeaway
Currency instability highlighted the need for a sound monetary system under a stronger national government.
Page 21: The New Constitution's Limits
The Limits of Democracy
Debates about who would be counted as “We the People” and how inclusive citizenship would be.
The Division and Separation of Powers
Structure designed to prevent concentration of power, with checks and balances across the three branches of government (legislative, executive, judicial).
Implications
Created a framework to manage representation, governance, and federalism, while also embedding compromises related to slavery and state rights.
Page 22: George Washington
Role
Selected as the unanimously chosen president of the Constitutional Convention and later became the first President of the United States, providing legitimacy and unity to the new framework.
Page 23: Slavery
Focus: The debate over slavery and its constitutional implications.
Key issue: Slavery’s presence in the Constitution and the compromises made (e.g., Three-Fifths Compromise not labeled explicitly here, but the material notes “Slavery in the Constitution”).
Significance
Slavery was a central and contentious issue shaping constitutional design and later constitutional amendments.
Page 24: Slave Advertisement
Primary source: Advertisement seeking to buy enslaved people, highlighting the brutal reality of slavery in the late 18th century.
Content cue: Describes enslaved individuals for sale, reflecting the commodification of Black people and the social and economic system underpinning slavery in early America.
Page 25: The Constitution Finalized
Key points
The final document created a strong central government and an integrated national economic market.
Emphasis on a robust and coordinated federal system to promote stability, growth, and national unity.
Page 26: The Signing of the Constitution
Event significance
The signing marked the culmination of the Constitutional Convention and the transition from draft to the process of state ratification.
Page 27: The Ratification Debate and the Origin of the Bill of Rights
Focus Question: How did Anti-Federalist concerns raised during the ratification process lead to the creation of the Bill of Rights?
Core idea
The ratification debates exposed fears about centralized power and potential threats to individual liberties, prompting a constitutional safeguard in the form of the Bill of Rights.
Page 28: The Ratification Debate and Literature
The Federalist
Role of Federalist writings
The Federalist Papers argued for ratification and explained the proposed Constitution’s principles, structure, and anticipated benefits.
Page 29: The Issues of Debate
Illustrations and disputes
A Looking-Glass for 1787 and other political cartoons/tracts reflect the public discourse about the Constitution.
Tensions between federal power and state rights, and between supporters and opponents of ratification.
Page 30: Order of the Grand Federal Procession
Cultural/political moment
A ceremonial procession in celebration of the Constitution, including notable divisions (Foresters, farmers, craftsmen, etc.).
Significance
Public celebration emphasized national unity and endorsement of the new framework.
Page 31: Opposition
The Anti-Federalists
Position
Opposed ratification due to fears of centralized power and potential threats to individual liberties.
Response
The push for Bill of Rights as a compromise to secure ratification by addressing fundamental protections.
Page 32: Banner of the Society of Pewterers
Visual/ethos moment
A decorative slide illustrating a political-cultural artifact and public sentiment of the era.
Page 33: Compromise for Ratification — The Bill of Rights
Contents
First ten amendments
Emphasis on “unalienable rights” and religious freedom, among other protections.
Significance
The Bill of Rights addressed Anti-Federalist concerns and secured broader support for ratification.
Page 34: Grand Federal Procession Banquet
Historical note
Celebration and public commemoration of the new constitutional order; annotated with a date (SEP 17, 1797) signifying ongoing national symbolism.
Page 35: Ratification of the Constitution
Geographic/political landscape
Map and labels show a Federalist majority for ratification versus Anti-Federalist opposition in various states.
Implication
Ratification was uneven across states, but overall momentum led to wide acceptance and ultimately the creation of a functional national government.
Page 36: New York Ratifies
Primary source: The CENTINEL editorial cartoon
Significance
Illustrates contemporary public opinion and the role of major states like New York in shaping the national consensus.
Page 37: “We the People” – Focus Question
Question: How did the definition of citizenship in the new republic apply differently to different people?
Key issues
Who counted as a citizen and who was excluded or marginalized (e.g., Native nations, enslaved people, free people of color, women, etc.).
The evolving understanding of citizenship and rights in a diverse, expanding republic.
Page 38: Identity
Themes
Who Belongs? The Constitution and American Citizenship
National Identity: Debates about inclusion, belonging, and the meaning of political membership in the new nation.
Page 39: Medal Issued to Red Jacket
Context
Red Jacket ( Sagoyewatha ) was an Iroquois leader; the medal signals interactions between new American state power and Native nations.
Significance
Demonstrates the ceremonial and diplomatic dimensions of U.S.-Native relations in the early republic.
Page 40: Defining “We the People" – Native Nations on the U.S. Border
Key topics
Treaty of Greenville (1795): Redrawing of territorial boundaries following the Northwest Indian War.
Native Assimilation: Policies aiming to absorb Native peoples into settler society through education, enfranchisement, and cultural change.
Native Nations in the West: Ongoing presence and resistance on frontier areas as U.S. expansion continued.
Page 41: Map of the Battle of Sierra Blanca
Note: Visual material illustrating military actions and frontier conflicts; interpretive context for the era of westward expansion and Native resistance.
Page 42: Disputed Territory, 1795
Focus: Territorial disputes and the complex mosaic of tribes and colonial powers along the Northwest frontier.
Key features
The Greenville Treaty Line and the shifting of boundaries following U.S. treaties and conflicts.
Notable tribal groups listed across the map include Ojibwe, Miami, Potawatomi, Sauk, Fox, Cherokee, Shawnee, Mingo, and many others.
Significance
Demonstrates the multi-actor frontier politics shaping territorial legitimacy and land control.
Page 43: The Plan of Civilization
Concept
The policy framework aimed at “civilizing” Native peoples through assimilation, education, and alignment with settler societal norms.
Implications
Represented a paternalistic approach to Native nations and a shift in federal Indian policy that sought to replace traditional governance with American structures.
Page 44: African Americans in the New Nation – Blacks and the Republic
Key topics
Gradual emancipation: Early legislative efforts that slowly transformed enslaved populations into free individuals (where applicable in certain states).
Open immigration: Policy debates about the openness of the nation to new residents, including enslaved or free Black people seeking opportunity (context-specific).
Page 45: Population of the United States, 1790
Data snapshot (highlights)
Total population:
Slaves:
Free people of color:
Regional breakdown (selected examples)
New England: New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Maine (part of Massachusetts) with counts for slaves and free people where provided.
Middle States: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania with respective slave/free counts.
South: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, Tennessee (territories at the time) with counts.
Significance
The 1790 census data illustrate the entrenchment and distribution of enslaved people, free Blacks, and free whites, highlighting the social and political divisions that would influence constitutional debates and policy for generations.
Page 46: Euphemia Toussaint
Note: Mentioned as a name likely tied to primary-source material or case study from the era; further context not provided in the slide transcription.
Page 47: Jefferson's Outlook on Race and Slavery
Theme: Jefferson, Slavery, and Race — Principles of Freedom
Discussion points
Debates over natural rights, equality, and the paradox of slavery within a republic founded on liberty.
The tension between Enlightenment ideals and the persistence of slavery in the new nation.
Page 48: Advertisement for a Runaway Slave
Primary source excerpt
Describes an enslaved person (a young woman) who has run away, with a reward offered for return.
Significance
Provides a stark, real-world glimpse into the institution of slavery and the everyday measures used to police and control enslaved people.
Page 49: Review – Focus Questions
Recap prompts
America under the Confederation: What were the achievements and problems of the Confederation government?
A New Constitution: What major disagreements and compromises molded the final content of the Constitution?
The Ratification Debate and the Origin of the Bill of Rights: How did Anti-Federalist concerns raise during the ratification process lead to the creation of the Bill of Rights?
“We the People”: How did the definition of citizenship in the new republic apply differently to different people?
Page 50: Next Lecture Preview
Chapter 8: Securing the Republic, 1791–1815
Focus areas to anticipate
Politics in an Age of Passion
The Adams Presidency
Jefferson in Power
The “Second War of Independence”
Page 51: This concludes the Norton Lecture Slide Set for Chapter 7
Meta note
The slides for Chapter 7 cover foundational themes leading into the early republic, balancing constitutional design, citizenship definitions, frontier policy, and race/class dynamics.
Suggested follow-up
Read primary sources referenced (e.g., The Federalist essays, the Bill of Rights text, the Treaty of Greenville) to deepen understanding of constitutional debates and NativeAmerican relations.