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Midterm Exam Study Guide - Vocabulary Flashcards (Medical Terminology & Body Systems)

Medical Terminology

  • Prefixes and their meanings

    • A- : without, not. Examples (conceptual): lack of oxygen = apnea

    • Bi- : two, double

    • Brady- : slow

    • Tachy- : fast, rapid

    • Auto- : self

    • Poly- : many, much

    • Epi- : upon, above, on top of; surrounding

    • Dys- : bad, difficult, painful

Organization of the Human Body and The Integumentary System (Chapter 1 and 7)

  • Relative positions of body structures

    • Example: relationship of fingers to arm (fingers are distal to the arm; the arm is proximal to the fingers)

  • Regional terms

    • Example: axillary = armpit

  • Types of burns

    • First-degree (superficial)

    • Second-degree (partial thickness)

    • Third-degree (full thickness)

  • Body responses to heat and cold

    • Heat exposure: sweating, vasodilation, possible increased blood flow to skin

    • Cold exposure: vasoconstriction, shivering, piloerection (goosebumps)

  • Definitions

    • Cyanosis: bluish discoloration due to low oxygen

    • Jaundice: yellowing due to high bilirubin levels

    • Melanin: pigment determining skin color

  • Sebaceous and sudoriferous glands

    • Sebaceous glands: secrete sebum (oil) to lubricate skin/hair

    • Sudoriferous (sweat) glands: regulate temperature and excrete waste products

Muscular/Skeletal (Chapters 8 and 9)

  • Parts of the long bone and their function

    • Diaphysis: shaft, compact bone for strength

    • Epiphyses: ends, spongy bone with marrow

    • Metaphysis: region between diaphysis and epiphysis

    • Medullary cavity: contains bone marrow (red in youth, yellow with fat in adults)

    • Periosteum: outer fibrous layer that nourishes bone and aids in growth/repair

    • Articular cartilage: covers joint surfaces to reduce friction

    • Functions: support, movement, mineral storage (calcium/phosphate), blood cell production (in marrow)

  • Bones in thoracic cavity and their defining characteristics

    • Ribs (true ribs 1–7; false ribs 8–12; floating ribs 11–12)

    • Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process)

    • Thoracic vertebrae characteristics; protect organs in the chest cavity

  • Examples of different kinds of joints

    • Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial; synovial joints include hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot, etc.

  • How do muscles contract? Relax?

    • Contraction: sliding filament theory; actin-myosin cross-bridge cycling; calcium ions released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum enable cross-bridge formation; ATP provides energy for power stroke and detachment

    • Relaxation: calcium ions are pumped back, cross-bridges detach, muscle lengthens due to opposing forces

  • Process of a muscle receiving a nerve impulse

    • Motor neuron releases acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction

    • Action potential travels along sarcolemma and into T-tubules

    • Calcium released from sarcoplasmic reticulum; cross-bridge cycling begins

    • Enzymes and messengers

    • Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine at the synapse to end the signal

    • Other messenger systems involve neurotransmitters and various enzymes that break them down or recycle them

  • Hypertrophy and atrophy

    • Hypertrophy: enlargement of muscle fibers due to increased workload/strength training or hormonal influence

    • Atrophy: shrinkage of muscle fibers due to disuse, aging, disease

    • Examples: weightlifting-induced hypertrophy; immobilization-induced atrophy

Nervous and Sensory (Ch 10–13)

  • Key definitions

    • Synapse: junction where a neuron communicates with another cell

    • Dendrite: receives signals from other neurons

    • Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine) used to transmit signals across synapses

    • Cerumen: earwax produced in the external ear canal

  • Parts of a neuron and their functions

    • Structures that protect the axon: myelin sheath (Schwann cells in the PNS; oligodendrocytes in CNS); nodes of Ranvier increase conduction speed

    • Structures that assist with rapid impulse conduction: myelin, saltatory conduction across nodes

  • Brain: structure and function

    • Parts of the cerebrum: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes (functions in reasoning, sensation, hearing, vision, voluntary movement, etc.)

    • Brain stem: midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata (basic life functions, relay centers)

  • Four components of sensation

    • Modality (type of sensation: touch, pain, temperature, proprioception)

    • Location (where the sensation occurs)

    • Intensity (how strong the stimulus is)

    • Duration (time course of the sensation)

  • Examples of different sensory receptors

    • Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, proprioceptors

Endocrine (Ch 14)

  • Hormones secreted from anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary

    • Anterior pituitary hormones and functions: GH (growth), TSH (thyroid-stimulating), ACTH (adrenocorticotropic), LH (luteinizing), FSH (follicle-stimulating), prolactin, MSH

    • Posterior pituitary hormones and functions: ADH (vasopressin) – water reabsorption; oxytocin – uterine contractions and milk ejection

  • Adrenal cortex hormones, functions, and examples

    • Cortisol (glucocorticoid): stress response, metabolism; has anti-inflammatory effects

    • Aldosterone (mineralocorticoid): sodium reabsorption, potassium excretion, fluid balance

    • Androgens: small androgenic steroids contributing to secondary traits

  • Parathyroid hormone versus Calcitonin

    • Parathyroid hormone (PTH): increases blood calcium by stimulating bone resorption, increasing intestinal calcium absorption, and promoting renal calcium reabsorption

    • Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium, inhibits bone resorption

Blood, Lymphatic System, and Immunity (Ch 15, 20, 21)

  • Anemia: definition and basic causes (reduced hemoglobin or red blood cell count, leading to decreased oxygen-carrying capacity)

  • How a blood clot is formed

    • Platelet plug formation, coagulation cascade with fibrin, clot stabilization; involves platelets and clotting factors

  • The four types of blood and the Rh factor, blood compatibility

    • Blood types A, B, AB, O; Rh factor positive/negative; compatibility important for transfusions

  • Definitions: erythrocyte, leukocyte, thrombocyte

    • Erythrocyte: red blood cell

    • Leukocyte: white blood cell

    • Thrombocyte: platelet

  • Types of immunity

    • Naturally acquired active, naturally acquired passive, artificially acquired active (vaccination) and artificially acquired passive (antibody transfer)

  • Erythropoietin

    • Hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates red blood cell production in bone marrow

Cardiovascular (Ch 16 and 18)

  • Blood flow through the heart

    • Chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle

    • Valves: atrioventricular (tricuspid, mitral) and semilunar (pulmonary, aortic)

    • Oxygenation status: right heart pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs; left heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body

  • How the heart receives oxygenated blood

    • Coronary arteries supply the myocardium; venous drainage via cardiac veins into the coronary sinus

  • Cardiac conduction system

    • SA node (pacemaker) initiates impulse; AV node delays the signal; Bundle of His; Purkinje fibers coordinate ventricular conduction

  • Why do we listen to heart sounds?

    • To assess valve function and detect abnormalities (S1, S2; abnormal sounds like murmurs)

  • How to assess pulses? Common sites

    • Radial, carotid, brachial, femoral, popliteal, posterior tibial, dorsalis pedis

  • Defining characteristics of artery, vein, and capillaries

    • Arteries: carry blood away from the heart; thick, elastic walls; often oxygenated (except pulmonary artery)

    • Veins: carry blood toward the heart; thinner walls; valves to prevent backflow; often deoxygenated (except pulmonary veins)

    • Capillaries: smallest vessels; site of exchange between blood and tissues

Respiratory (Ch 22)

  • Structures in the upper and lower respiratory tracts and their main functions

    • Upper: nose (filters, warms, and moistens air); pharynx; larynx

    • Lower: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs; gas exchange surfaces in alveoli

  • Structure that prevents aspiration

    • Epiglottis covers the glottis during swallowing to prevent food from entering the airway

  • Important characteristics of the trachea

    • C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings; lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells for mucus production

  • Keep the lungs expanded

    • Diaphragm and intercostal muscles drive ventilation; surfactant reduces surface tension to prevent alveolar collapse; adequate transpulmonary pressure maintains inflation

  • Define: eupnea, dyspnea, Kussmaul respiration, hypoxemia

    • Eupnea: normal breathing

    • Dyspnea: difficulty breathing

    • Kussmaul respiration: deep, labored breathing often seen in metabolic acidosis

    • Hypoxemia: low oxygen level in the blood

Digestive (Ch 23)

  • Digestion versus absorption

    • Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller molecules

    • Absorption: uptake of nutrients into the bloodstream or lymphatic system

  • Examples of digestion

    • Mechanical: chewing, churning of stomach

    • Chemical: enzymatic breakdown (salivary amylase, pepsin, pancreatic enzymes)

  • How do we absorb food rapidly?

    • Intestinal villi and microvilli increase surface area; efficient transporter proteins; rich blood supply

  • Where does absorption take place?

    • Primarily small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)

  • Path of the digestive system

    • Mouth → esophagus → stomach → small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) → large intestine → rectum

  • How does food travel? defining characteristics of each structure

    • Mouth: mechanical digestion and saliva enzymes

    • Esophagus: peristaltic movement to propel food

    • Stomach: churning; acid environment; intrinsic factor for B12

    • Small intestine: digestion and absorption; enterocytes with microvilli

    • Large intestine: water absorption and feces formation

  • Stomach: parts and function

    • Cardia, fundus, body, antrum/pyloric region; functions include mixing, acid digestion, intrinsic factor production

  • Define: mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, hepatic, chyme, rugae, microvilli

    • Mechanical digestion: physical breakdown (e.g., chewing, stomach churning)

    • Chemical digestion: enzymatic breakdown of macromolecules

    • Hepatic: relating to the liver

    • Chyme: semi-liquid mass of partly digested food in the stomach/intestines

    • Rugae: folds in the stomach lining that expand with distention

    • Microvilli: tiny projections on enterocytes increasing surface area for absorption

Urinary; Fluid and Electrolyte/Acid-Base Balance (Ch 24–25)

  • Urine formation process

    • Glomerular filtration: plasma filtered at the glomerulus

    • Tubular reabsorption: useful substances reabsorbed into blood (e.g., glucose, water, electrolytes)

    • Tubular secretion: waste removed into filtrate for excretion

  • Hormones to know

    • ADH (antidiuretic hormone): promotes water reabsorption in the collecting ducts

    • Aldosterone: promotes sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion

    • Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium levels

    • Parathyroid hormone (PTH): increases blood calcium levels

  • Renal suppression vs urinary retention

    • Renal suppression: reduced kidney function leading to decreased urine output

    • Urinary retention: inability to empty the bladder

  • Acid-base balance concepts

    • Respiratory acidosis/alkalosis: due to CO2 retention or loss; pH changes with elevated or reduced CO2

    • Metabolic acidosis/alkalosis: due to changes in bicarbonate or non-CO2 metabolic processes

    • What acidosis vs alkalosis mean: pH below 7.35 vs above 7.45; compensation involves CO2 (lungs) or HCO3- (kidneys)

  • How the lungs control carbon dioxide (CO2)

    • Ventilation adjustments regulate CO2 removal; lungs modify breathing rate/depth to influence arterial CO2 levels

Psychology (Ch 34, 36)

  • Mentally healthy vs mentally ill

    • Mentally healthy: functioning, coping, perceiving reality, fulfilling daily roles

    • Mentally ill: patterns of thinking/feeling that impair functioning

  • Defense mechanisms

    • Denial: refusing to acknowledge reality

    • Projection: attributing one’s own thoughts/feelings to others

    • Regression: returning to earlier developmental patterns under stress

    • Suppression: consciously delaying addressing a thought or feeling

  • Therapeutic communication techniques

    • Techniques that promote open dialogue, empathy, active listening, and patient-centered care

Reproductive (Ch 26 and 27)

  • Male reproductive system

    • Process of sperm production: spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules; maturation in epididymis

    • Parts of sperm: head (contains DNA), midpiece (mitochondria for energy), tail (flagellum for movement)

  • Female reproduction

    • Process of follicular maturation, ovulation, and maintaining pregnancy

    • Roles of hormones: FSH stimulates follicle growth; LH triggers ovulation; estrogen and progesterone regulate the reproductive cycle and pregnancy; hCG supports early pregnancy

  • Lanugo

    • Fine hair that covers the fetus during development

  • What causes a man to look like a man and a female to look like a female?

    • Sexual differentiation driven by sex hormones (androgens, estrogens) influencing secondary sexual characteristics

Growth and Development (Ch 24)

  • Piaget stages of cognitive development

    • Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational (simplified outline of progression in thinking)

  • Erik Erikson stages of psychosocial development

    • Series of psychosocial crises across the lifespan (e.g., trust vs mistrust, identity vs role confusion, generativity vs stagnation)

  • Leading cause of death in children, adolescents, and young adults

    • Context-specific: common causes include accidents, injuries, and chronic illness; reference to epidemiology in the module

  • Proximodistal and cephalocaudal development

    • Proximodistal: development from the center outward (trunk to limbs)

    • Cephalocaudal: development from head to toe (head earlier than limbs)

Nutrition (Ch 19)

  • Essential nutrients, parenteral, enteral

    • Essential nutrients: nutrients required for health that must be supplied in the diet

    • Parenteral: delivery of nutrients by route other than the GI tract (e.g., IV)

    • Enteral: delivery of nutrients through the GI tract (e.g., oral or tube feeding)

  • Role of adipose tissue

    • Energy storage, insulation, cushioning, and endocrine functions (hormones released by adipose tissue)

  • Lactose intolerance characteristics

    • Inadequate lactase enzyme leading to symptoms after dairy intake (gas, bloating, diarrhea)

  • NG tube and tube feedings: nursing considerations and safety

    • Safety: verify placement, maintain tube patency, monitor for aspiration, correct formula administration

  • Components of clear liquid diet

    • Simple liquids that are easily digested and absorbed (e.g., water, broth, clear juice, gelatin, tea)

  • Functions of nutrients (examples)

    • Protein: tissue repair (e.g., skin integrity) and immune function; adequate protein supports healing and maintenance

Pharmacology (Ch 21)

  • Verbal order

    • A spoken order from a clinician; requires confirmation and documentation procedures to ensure accuracy and patient safety

  • Important considerations when administering medications

    • Never leave a medication unattended; check patient identifiers, allergies, dose calculations, and route; monitor for adverse effects

  • Routes of medications and administration details

    • Various routes (oral, sublingual, buccal, topical, transdermal, nasal, inhalation, intramuscular, intravenous, etc.); for injections, consider needle length and gauge based on route and patient factors

  • Define: toxicity, tolerance, enteric-coated, synergism, antagonist, sublingual, topical, denominator, idiosyncratic reaction, adverse drug reaction, compatibility, parenteral

    • Toxicity: harmful effect at high drug levels

    • Tolerance: diminished response requiring higher dose for same effect

    • Enteric-coated: designed to pass through stomach to dissolve in the intestine

    • Synergism: combined effect greater than the sum of individual effects

    • Antagonist: drug that blocks or reduces effect of another

    • Sublingual: administration under the tongue for rapid absorption

    • Topical: applied to skin or mucous membranes

    • Denominator: in dosage calculations, the bottom part of the ratio (e.g., 5 mg/10 mL; 10 mL is the denominator)

    • Idiosyncratic reaction: unpredictable, individualized drug response

    • Adverse drug reaction: unwanted, harmful reaction to a drug

    • Compatibility: ability of two or more drugs to be given together without harmful interaction

    • Parenteral: route other than the GI tract (e.g., injections)

  • Six rights of medication administration

    • Right medication, right dose, right patient, right route, right time, right documentation