Unit 3 and 4 AP Psychology Comprehensive Notes
Sensation and Perception (Unit Overview)
Distinguishing Sensation and Perception: - Sensation: This is defined as raw data, incorporating the information we receive directly from our senses. The fundamental sources of sensation are sensory receptors. - Perception: This refers to the process of interpreting and making sense of the information obtained through the sensory receptors.
The Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
Gestalt Psychology Fundamentals: - Originating from Unit , Gestalt psychology operates on the principle that "the whole is greater than individual parts." - These principles suggest that human beings naturally perceive objects in their simplest form and instinctively follow specific lines and curves.
Specific Gestalt Principles: - Figure and Ground: The visual system simplifies scenes into two categories: Figures (the objects we focus on or are interested in) and Ground (the background elements). This allows for quick identification of important information. - Continuation: This principle describes the tendency to view an entire object and continue the gaze toward a subsequent object. Example: An exit sign with an arrow pointing outward leads the reader’s gaze to extend toward the actual exit. - Closure: The brain subconsciously fills in missing information when observing a familiar but incomplete object. Example: Seeing an image of black lines and shapes and perceiving an airplane even though the drawing is unfinished. - Similarity: Objects that are part of a group or specific pattern are perceived as a single unit. If an anomaly exists (one object differs), that object becomes the focal point. - Proximity: Objects placed close to each other are perceived as a singular image, whereas objects placed further apart are seen as separate entities. - Symmetry: Symmetrical objects are perceived as one unified object.
Depth Perception and Visual Cues
Depth Perception Definition: The ability to perceive the relative distance of an object within one's visual field.
Binocular Cues: These require eyes to function. - Convergence: As objects move closer to the face, the eyes move inward; as objects move further away, the eyes straighten. - Retinal Disparity: Each eye views a slightly different part of an object, providing a degree of depth.
Monocular Cues: These require only eye. There are different cues (per the speaker): - Relative Size: Closer objects appear larger, while distant objects appear smaller. - Interposition: If one object blocks another, the obstructed object is perceived as being further away. - Relative Height: Objects positioned higher in the visual field are perceived as being further away compared to lower objects. - Shading and Contour: Helps understand the form of an object. Hazy parts with less detail are typically perceived as being further away.
Introduction to Learning (Unit Overview)
Mechanisms of Learning: - Association: Connecting items or experiences based on the chronological order in which they were experienced. - Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. Example: Watching others shoot a basketball to improve a three-point shot. - Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is delayed or hidden; it is not demonstrated until there is a specific need or incentive. - Social Learning: Learning through social interaction, such as mimicking body language without conscious thought. - Insight Learning: Mentally working through details to arrive at a solution to a problem. - Trial and Error Learning: Attempting multiple random solutions until one is successful. - Accidental Reinforcement: Can lead to superstitious behavior when an individual links an action to a positive effect even if they are unrelated.
Key Figures in the Study of Learning
John Garcia: Researched associations and is famous for "taste aversion," which is a negative association with food due to past pain or nausea.
Albert Bandura: Coined the term "observational learning" and conducted the "Bobo doll experiment," proving children model aggressive behavior after watching adults.
Edward Tolman: Researched latent learning using rats in mazes.
Edward Thorndike: Proposed "trial and error learning" and formulated the "Law of Effect."
Ivan Pavlov: The "father of classical conditioning," known for saliva experiments with dogs.
B. F. Skinner: Described "operant conditioning," focusing on how behavior is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
Robert Rescorla: Focused on cognition in learning, specifically how animals learn to expect event outcomes.
John B. Watson: Argued that behaviors are primarily the result of learning.
Alan Wagner: Collaborated with Rescorla on the importance of cognition in learning.
Classical Conditioning: Principles and Processes
Pavlov’s Experiment: - Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS/US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food). - Unconditioned Response (UCR/UR): A natural, unlearned response (e.g., drooling for food). - Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially elicits no response (e.g., a bell). - Acquisition: The process of associating the NS with the UCS/US. - Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a response (the bell after training). - Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (drooling for the bell).
Conditioning Phenomena: - Extinction: The weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the US. - Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause. - Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the original CS. - Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between the CS and other similar stimuli. - Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order): When a new neutral stimulus (e.g., a light) is paired with an existing CS (e.g., the bell) and elicits the CR without the US ever being present.
Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Consequences
Foundations: Established by B. F. Skinner based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to recur, and those followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely.
The Skinner Box: A chamber containing a speaker, a light, and a lever used for Shaping (reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior).
Reinforcement and Punishment Matrix: - Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., getting for an A). - Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking away chores for getting an A). - Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., paying parents money for a bad grade). - Negative Punishment: Removing a positive stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away a phone for a bad grade).
Reinforcement Schedules and Motivation
Schedules of Reinforcement: - Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., free meal after visits). - Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time (e.g., employee of the month rewards). - Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after random numbers of responses (e.g., slot machines/loot boxes). - Variable Interval: Reinforcement after random amounts of time (e.g., secret shoppers).
Motivation Types: - Intrinsic Motivation: Desire to perform an activity for its own sake. - Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards or avoiding punishment. - Overjustification Effect: When extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation, potentially ending the behavior if rewards stop.
Biological, Cognitive, and Social Factors in Learning
Influential Factors: Learning is impacted by biological (genetics, neural mirroring), psychological (previous experiences), and social-cultural influences (culture, peers).
Biological Constraints: - Preparedness: Biological predisposition to learn associations that help with survival. - Instinctive Drift: The tendency for animals to revert back to biological patterns even after being conditioned.
Cognitive and Coping Factors: - Locus of Control: External (outside forces determine fate) vs. Internal (personal control over fate). - Coping Strategies: Problem-focused coping (changing the stressor directly) and Emotion-focused coping (ignoring the stressor and focusing on emotional needs).