Study Notes: The Society of Jesus
Founding of the Society of Jesus
The Society of Jesus was established on September by an order from Pope Paul III, known as "Regimini militantis ecclesiae."
Life of St. Ignatius of Loyola
Early Life and Conversion
Born as Inigo Lopez de Loyola in in Loyola, northern Spain.
He pursued a military career.
During a French advance on Pamplona, Inigo, as part of the defending group, suffered a significant injury to his legs.
While recovering, he read influential books such as "The Golden Legend" by Jacopo da Voragine and "The Life of Christ" by Ludolph of Saxony.
His reflections on the lives of saints Francis of Assisi and Dominic, combined with his reading, led to a profound transformation of his life.
This period of reading and reflection brought him immense inner peace and comfort.
Manresa and the Beginnings of the Spiritual Exercises
After his recovery, Ignatius journeyed to the Benedictine monastery at Montserrat.
He spent a night in vigil before the Black Madonna of Our Lady, symbolically laying down his sword and dagger and taking up the staff of a pilgrim and the clothes of a beggar.
He dedicated three days to writing down the sins of his past life and made a full confession.
He then relocated to the nearby town of Manresa, spending a year there, which he referred to as his “primitive church.”
During this time, he meditated deeply on the life of Christ, drawing great benefit from "The Imitation of Christ" by Thomas a Kempis.
His daily routine included intense prayer, fasting, and self-flagellation, and he allowed his hair and fingernails to grow long.
Beginnings of the Spiritual Exercises: While at Manresa, Ignatius faced significant doubts and temptations. By attending to his inner inspirations, he found guidance and subsequently toned down his extreme austerities, experiencing relief.
He received visions and became convinced he was being taught directly by God.
He utilized these profound experiences to guide others, and the essential elements of what would become the "Spiritual Exercises" emerged during this period.
Although he would revise the "Spiritual Exercises" over the next years, he considered the fundamental structure and content to be in hand when he departed Manresa for Jerusalem.
Pilgrimage to the Holy Land and Further Studies
In , Ignatius sailed from Venice to the Holy Land.
He spent a fortnight visiting holy sites, with the aspiration of remaining there for the rest of his life to save souls.
However, the Franciscans, who were in charge of the holy sites, requested him to leave, a request Ignatius protested against vehemently.
Deciding that further studies would better equip him to help souls, he returned to Spain.
He began his studies in Latin alongside children half his age in Barcelona for two years.
Following this, he enrolled at the University of Alcala, a center known for being heavily influenced by the writings of Erasmus.
During his studies, he continued to wear a pilgrim's garb, beg for his sustenance, and began to guide a few individuals using the nascent "Spiritual Exercises."
He was accused of being an "alumbrados" (enlightened one), a term for those seeking spiritual perfection through internal illumination, who were often considered pseudo mystics.
This accusation led to his apprehension by the Inquisition of Toledo, resulting in his imprisonment for days.
Salamanca and Paris
Upon being advised to leave Alcala, Ignatius moved to Salamanca to continue his studies.
There, he again fell under the suspicion of the Dominicans and was imprisoned for two weeks.
After his release, he was permitted to preach, but with the restriction that he could not discuss the difference between mortal and venial sins until he was deemed better qualified.
He once more decided to leave, heading to Paris, where he would reside for seven years, ultimately earning a master's degree in .
While engaged in his studies in Paris, he deliberately curtailed his spiritual ministries to devote himself more fully to academic pursuits.
In Paris, he gathered other like-minded men, and together they resolved to travel to Rome to offer their services to the Pope for the greater glory of God and the good of souls.
The First Jesuits: "Friends in the Lord"
Key Members and Their Formation
Favre and Xavier: These two individuals were the first permanent recruits of Ignatius for the Society of Jesus.
Pierre Favre: At the age of , Favre struggled with numerous scruples. Participating in the "Spiritual Exercises" under Ignatius' guidance brought an end to his spiritual troubles. He later authored a "Memoriale," a journal documenting a personal conversation between himself and God, reminiscent of the "Confessions of St. Augustine."
Francis Xavier: Characterized as a more dashing personality than Favre, Xavier eventually yielded to Ignatius' promptings to forsake his worldly life. He was subsequently missioned to India at the request of King John III of Portugal. His letters from India and the East electrified his fellow Jesuits and others across Europe, inspiring many to spread the Catholic faith in the Indies.
Other Original Members: The original group of Jesuits also included Diego Lainez, Alfonso Salmeron (best known for his volumes of commentary on the New Testament), Nicolas de Bobadilla, and Simao Rodrigues.
They collectively referred to themselves as “Friends in the Lord.”
Favre was already an ordained priest.
On August , the group made a vow to journey to Jerusalem and to offer themselves to the Pope.
Despite having no initial intention of forming a new religious order, they also took a vow of poverty.
All members of this foundational group were profoundly shaped and formed by the "Spiritual Exercises."
Early Ministries and the Vision at La Storta
Their journey led them on foot to Venice, where they were met by Ignatius, who had arrived a year earlier after privately studying theology.
Due to unforeseen circumstances, the group was unable to proceed to the Holy Land as intended.
Instead, they dedicated their efforts to ministry in Venice, specifically working in hospitals to care for victims of syphilis.
They later visited Rome to meet the Pope and seek blessings for their planned trip to the Holy Land. After this, they returned to Venice and their ministries but remained unable to undertake their intended voyage.
They eventually returned to Rome, and on its outskirts, while praying at La Storta, Ignatius received a profound vision.
In this vision, he saw God the Father and Jesus with the Cross, who told him: “I wish you to serve us. I will be propitious to you in Rome.”
Establishment and Growth of the Society
First Church and Rapid Expansion
An Italian priest, Pietro Codacio, who was previously a chamberlain at the papal court, joined the group. He played a crucial role in facilitating the transfer of the Church of Santa Maria della Strada to the Society of Jesus.
This became the very first church ever held by the Jesuits and served as the site for the future mother church of the Society, the Gesu, in Rome.
Though small, the church was ideally located for preaching in the heart of the city.
By , the Society of Jesus had grown to over members, with a presence not only in Europe but also in India, Brazil, and Japan.
This rapid expansion contrasted sharply with other contemporary orders; for instance, the Theatines (founded in ) had approximately members, followed by the Barnabites and Somascans.
Ignatius and Diego Lainez diligently worked to safeguard and promote the original inspiration and charism of the Society.
The Spiritual Exercises: Purpose and Structure
The "Spiritual Exercises" were never intended to be read as a student's textbook but rather served as a comprehensive teacher’s manual.
They are a collection of materials, directives, and suggestions designed to guide an individual through a spiritual course, managed by a director.
The text is interspersed with various pieces including directives, prayers, declarations, specific procedures, observations, and rules.
The Exercises are structured into a system of four distinct weeks.
Purpose: The ultimate purpose of the "Spiritual Exercises" is “to prepare and dispose the soul to rid itself of all its disordered affections and to seek and find God’s will in the ordering of our life for the salvation of our souls.”
The Principle and Foundation: This core concept within the Exercises articulates the ultimate purpose of human life, which is “to praise, reverence and serve God.”
The First Week: The dynamic of the first week is fundamentally underpinned by the word "conversion," involving a thorough review of one's life and a developing awareness of God’s mercy and love.
Rules for Discernment: Ignatius introduced the Rules for Discernment, demonstrating his deep awareness that both God and the devil are active forces throughout the process of spiritual conversion and inner movements.
Role of the Giver: The person guiding the Exercises (the giver) is explicitly instructed not to attempt to influence the outcome or decision-making of the person making them (the exercitant) in any particular direction.
Jesuit Organization and Membership
Basic Framework and Governance
The foundational unit of the Society of Jesus was the province, each overseen by a Father Provincial.
The Provincial was directly accountable to the Superior General, who resided in Rome.
The Superior General was elected for life by the General Congregation and was obligated to faithfully execute the decrees passed by this body.
Within each province, individual Jesuit houses were led by a superior or rector.
Operational Structure and Training
Unlike other religious orders, the Society of Jesus did not hold regular chapters or assemblies, a practice implemented to conserve valuable time.
Superiors within the houses were appointed by the Provincial.
Members did not pray the Breviary in common. The rationale for this was that their ministries often took them far and wide, making it impractical for them to return solely for common prayer.
Rome served as the principal training center for members of the Order.
Approximately percent of Jesuits were priests, with the remaining members being scholastics (those in training for priesthood) and brothers (non-ordained members).
Jesuit schools, which began in , became a significant source of novices for the Society.
Recruitment and Membership Selection
A vocation promoter was an active role, tasked with securing new recruits for the Society, indicating that Jesuits did not passively await applicants.
A structured program of prayer, reading, conversation, and reflection was established to facilitate the recruitment process.
Many individuals were drawn to join the Jesuits due to their noted cheerfulness, refinement, graciousness, sense of purpose, and the strong bond of camaraderie among members.
Not all who desired to join were accepted. Some candidates were deemed too ignorant, had committed sexual crimes in their past, or lacked emotional maturity.
While the general rule for admittance was years of age, boys as young as were occasionally accepted.
About percent of all who entered the Society eventually left or were asked to depart.
Reasons for dismissal or departure included minor offenses, being brilliant but prone to predictions and prophecies (a specific case mentioned), ill health (chronic headaches, insomnia, or melancholy).
One notable incident involved a man admitted despite being needy and ill-clad, who subsequently robbed the community while they were at prayer.
Ignatius, in his "General Examen," provided a detailed description of the rigorous commitment required from new recruits.
Those who were dismissed were to be treated with gentleness and compassion, and assisted in their transition out of the Society. However, readmission was not permitted.
Most Jesuits entered from the merchant or professional classes and urban families, often skilled in the arts.
Brothers typically originated from lower social ranks and were not offered any further formal education beyond their initial formation.
Though men from various European nations worked together, ethnic prejudices could, at times, arise.
In India and Brazil, local men were generally not admitted to the Society due to issues like celibacy or the caste system, although they were admitted in Japan.
Self-Understanding, Communication, and Identity
The th century saw tragic losses of Jesuit lives; for instance, in , Jesuits destined for Brazil were killed by Huguenots.
Jesuit ongoing education was emphasized as needing to be both consistent and sustained.
Correspondence was highly valued, especially for fostering a “union of hearts” across vast distances.
Letters from the East could take years to reach Rome and were vulnerable to being stolen by Jesuit enemies or lost in shipwrecks.
These letters, often referred to as “edifying letters,” were instrumental in winning friends and attracting new recruits.
A letter was sent to the entire Society worldwide two or three times a year.
Polanco, as secretary of the Society, would visit various Jesuit houses to explain the meaning of the Institute and to rekindle enthusiasm for its mission.
Ignatius’ autobiography, known as "The Pilgrim’s Story," was intended to illustrate the Society's place within the grander scheme of divine providence.
It was believed that in Ignatius, one could see the first form and grace bestowed by God upon the Society, and that the entire life of the Society was contained in germ and expressed within Ignatius’ personal narrative.
His story was seen as the story of every Jesuit, an account of the inner life of the soul, implying that just as God guided him, so God guides each Jesuit.
Jesuits were reminded that their ministry was an imitation of the lifestyle of the first disciples of Jesus.
Though Jesuits lived in houses, their true “best house” was understood to be their pilgrimage and mission.
Distinct from monks who retreat from the world, Jesuits were those who actively sought the company of people to help them, often proclaiming, “The world is our house.”
Jesuits were bound together by a strong sense of brotherhood. Their order came to be known as "Compagnia" (Company), echoing the meditations on the Kingdom and the Two Standards from the "Spiritual Exercises," and fundamentally shaped by the vision Ignatius received at La Storta.
Pastoral Ideals and Practices
Core Mission and Societal Engagement
Jesuits viewed their role as assisting in the progress of Christian life and doctrine among the people they served.
They considered themselves essentially as peacemakers and promoters of reconciliation across all sectors of society.
Their work extended to individuals in high places, developing good relationships with royalty in Portugal, Spain, and Bavaria.
They received a favorable reception in Spain and Sicily.
However, they also recognized that developing a close friendship with one magnate could render them suspect in the eyes of others.
Crucially, Jesuits also ministered to the poor and outcast, being reminded that the Society had a special responsibility for