Stage 2 Physics 2024 Notes

Introduction

• This document summarizes the Stage 2 Physics 2024 subject outline used in Australian and SACE International schools (Jan 2024–Dec 2024 for general teaching; May/June 2024–Mar 2025 for SACE International).
• It is published by the SACE Board of South Australia and outlines subject description, capabilities, safety, learning scope, content, assessment, and support materials.

Subject description

• Physics is a 10-credit subject at Stage 1 and a 20-credit subject at Stage 2.
• Focus: using qualitative and quantitative models, laws, and theories to understand matter, forces, energy, and their interactions.
• Physics explains natural phenomena from subatomic to macroscopic scales and makes predictions about them.
• The field develops through evidence from observations, measurements, and experimentation over centuries.
• Studying physics helps students understand how evidence refines models/theories and enables technologies/innovations.
• Skills include gathering, analysing, and interpreting primary and secondary data to investigate phenomena and technologies, and understanding the human endeavour of science.
• Students explore how physicists develop new understanding and produce innovative solutions to everyday and global problems.
• Physics pathways include engineering, renewable energy, communications, materials, transport safety, medical science, scientific research, and astronomy.

Capabilities

• Seven capabilities identified by SACE:
  • literacy
  • numeracy
  • information and communication technology (ICT) capability
  • critical and creative thinking
  • personal and social capability
  • ethical understanding
  • intercultural understanding
• Each capability is developed through specific examples in the subject (e.g., interpreting data, modelling, ICT use, collaboration, ethical considerations, and cross-cultural awareness).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge, cultures, and perspectives

• In partnership with Indigenous communities, the SACE Board supports high-quality learning that respects diverse Indigenous knowledge and perspectives.
• Teachers are encouraged to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge/perspectives by:
  • providing opportunities to learn about Indigenous histories, cultures, and contemporary experiences
  • recognising contributions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to Australian society
  • drawing attention to the value of Indigenous knowledge from past and present
  • using culturally appropriate protocols when engaging with Indigenous peoples and communities

Health and safety

• Schools have duty of care under Work Health and Safety Act 2012 and relevant guidelines.
• Laboratory safety practices include:
  • use equipment under supervision
  • follow safety procedures for apparatus handling
  • wear appropriate safety gear
  • special care for electrical equipment, ionising/non-ionising radiation, and lasers

Learning scope and requirements

Learning requirements

Stage 2 Physics requires students to:

1. apply science inquiry skills to deconstruct problems and design/conduct physics investigations with safe, ethical practices
2. obtain, record, represent, analyse, and interpret investigation results
3. evaluate procedures and results, analyse evidence to justify conclusions
4. develop/apply knowledge and understanding of physics concepts in new/familiar contexts
5. explore/understand science as a human endeavour
6. communicate physics knowledge using appropriate terms/conventions/representations

Content

• Stage 2 Physics is a 20-credit subject and integrates three strands:
  • science inquiry skills
  • science as a human endeavour
  • science understanding
• Three topics:
  • Topic 1: Motion and relativity
  • Topic 2: Electricity and magnetism
  • Topic 3: Light and atoms
• Topics can be sequenced to suit groups; contexts are provided as possible inquiry approaches; they are not exhaustive.

Detailed topic structure

Topic 1: Motion and relativity

• Builds on Stage 1 concepts of forces and energy; focuses on relationships between force and acceleration in different contexts.
• Key ideas include:
  • acceleration due to gravity on projectile motion; vector nature of gravity
  • projectile motion described/interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively
  • Newton’s Laws introduce vector momentum; conservation of momentum used to identify subatomic particles relevant to the Standard Model (Topic 3: Light and atoms)
  • centripetal acceleration; extension to satellites via Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
  • connection between centripetal acceleration and particle motion in cyclotrons (Topic 2)
  • Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion and their use in explaining satellite/planetary motion
  • Special Relativity: matter/energy relation at high speeds; postulates and experimental confirmations
• Subtopics and relations:
  • Subtopic 1.1: Projectile motion
  • describes motion without/with air resistance; quantitative investigations
  • contexts: sports, vehicle designs, terminal speed
  • Subtopic 1.2: Forces and momentum
  • Subtopic 1.3: Circular motion and gravitation
  • Subtopic 1.4: Relativity

Subtopic 1.1: Projectile motion (science understanding contexts)

• Constant acceleration relationships link displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
• Horizontal/vertical components treated independently; key equations (illustrative):
  • displacement components: $x = v<em>0 \, t \cos\theta, \quad y = v</em>0 \, t \sin\theta - \tfrac{1}{2} g t^2$
  • velocity components: $v<em>x = v</em>0 \cos\theta, \quad v<em>y = v</em>0 \sin\theta - g t$
• Magnitudes using vector/triangle methods; use of trigonometry for velocity components and path angles.
• Maximum range occurs at launch angle that optimizes horizontal range; general statements about 45° for equal launch/landing heights.
• Examples/connections: monkey-hunter problem, sport trajectories, analysis of sporting activities such as shot put, javelin, golf, aerial skiing.
• Apparatus/contextual: projectile launcher for investigating launch angle/height effects on range.
• Core relationships shown (illustrative):
  • horizontal range R = rac{v_0^2 \sin(2\theta)}{g} when landing height equals launch height.

Subtopic 1.2: Forces and momentum

• Momentum concept: momentum $p = mv$; kinetic energy $K = \tfrac{1}{2} mv^2$ (energy discussions linked to momentum).
• Newton’s Second Law in vector form and one/two-dimensional vector diagrams to show momentum change: $\Delta p = \mathbf{F} \Delta t$
• Conservation of momentum in two-dimensional collisions; use of vector addition/subtraction for momentum before/after events.
• Applications: neutrino discovery discussions; public debate on space exploration economics.
• Key analytic relation: Three forms of Newton’s second law in 1D/2D as needed; matrix-like vector diagrams used for momentum changes.

Subtopic 1.3: Circular motion and gravitation

• Centripetal acceleration: $a_c = \frac{v^2}{r}$ and motion in a circle with constant speed.
• Relationship of speed, radius, and period: $T = \frac{2 \pi r}{v}$ and $v = \frac{2 \pi r}{T}$.
• Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: $F<em>g = G \frac{m</em>1 m_2}{r^2}$; applicable to satellites, planets, and stars; Newton’s laws explain Kepler’s laws.
• Kepler’s Laws (qualitative/quantitative): First Law (elliptical orbits), Second Law (equal areas in equal times), Third Law (orbital period relates to orbit radius); for circular orbits, $T^2 = \frac{4 \pi^2}{G M} r^3$ where M is the central mass.
• Centripetal acceleration connections to cyclotron motion and satellite motion; link to classical and modern physics (special relativity) context.

Subtopic 1.4: Relativity

• Special Relativity: two postulates
  • laws of physics are same in all inertial frames
  • speed of light in vacuum is constant: $c$
• Consequences include time dilation, length contraction, and relativistic momentum; Lorentz factor $\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}$.
• Dynamics include relativistic momentum $p = \gamma m v$ and energy considerations; time dilation measured with atomic clocks; twin paradox and length contraction discussions.
• Applications/examples: GPS consideration, high-speed particle experiments; discussion of experimental verifications.

Topic 2: Electricity and magnetism

• Builds on Stage 1 electricity concepts and Stage 2 motion/circular motion. Introduces fields and their pictorial representations.
• Key ideas: interaction of charges in fields, motion of charges in electric and magnetic fields, and applications in cyclotrons and synchrotrons; radiation generation and EM spectrum links.
• Concepts also connected to health/medical physics (shielding, linear accelerators, X-ray tubes) and ICT data storage/transmission.

Subtopic 2.1: Electric fields

• Coulomb’s Law and superposition: superposition for multiple charges and consistency with Newton’s Third Law.
• Electric field of point charge: $\mathbf{E} = k \frac{q}{r^2} \hat{r}, \quad k = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} </li> <li>Parallel plate field (uniform):$E = \frac{\Delta V}{d}$; potential difference relates to electric potential energy:$U = q\Delta V$.</li> <li>Relationship/contrast with gravitational field; field diagrams and vector addition for multiple charges (two-point charges or plates).</li> <li>Practical demonstrations: Van de Graaff generator to show repulsion of like charges; electric field mapping with sensors/visualisation tools.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic22motionofchargedparticlesinelectricfields">Subtopic 2.2: Motion of charged particles in electric fields</h5> <ul> <li>Work done by electric field and potential difference: the electronvolt as a unit of energy; relation between energy changes and potential differences:$W = q \Delta V$(work-energy viewpoint).</li> <li>Electric fields between parallel plates: magnitude$E = \frac{\Delta V}{d}$; use in energy work and acceleration concepts; connect to kinetic energy changes in charged particles.</li> <li>Concepts of electric potential energy and gravitational analogy; links to ion thrusters and particle accelerators (discipline cross-links).</li> <li>Emphasise energy units and conversions between joules and electronvolts:$1\,\text{eV} = 1.602\times 10^{-19}\,\text{J}$.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic23magneticfields">Subtopic 2.3: Magnetic fields</h5> <ul> <li>Magnetic fields and lines around magnets and current-carrying conductors; right-hand rule for direction.</li> <li>Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor:$\mathbf{F} = I \mathbf{L} \times \mathbf{B}$; magnitude$F = I L B \sin\theta$.</li> <li>Magnetic field strength near solenoids, and general comparisons with electric/magnetic field strengths.</li> <li>Field strength formula for a long straight wire:$B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r}$.</li> <li>Use of magnetic fields in devices like cyclotrons, synchrotrons, mass spectrometers, electron microscopes, maglev trains, etc.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic24motionofchargedparticlesinmagneticfields">Subtopic 2.4: Motion of charged particles in magnetic fields</h5> <ul> <li>Force on a moving charge in a uniform magnetic field:$\mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}$; magnitude for perpendicular motion:$F = q v B$.</li> <li>Resulting circular motion due to perpendicular velocity and magnetic field; centripetal force provided by magnetic interaction.</li> <li>Applications: deflection of ions in cyclotrons; velocity dependence of magnetic force and comparisons to electric force.</li> <li>Educational demonstrations: Teltron tubes, electron/mass measurements, etc.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic25electromagneticinduction">Subtopic 2.5: Electromagnetic induction</h5> <ul> <li>Magnetic flux:$\PhiB = \int \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{A}$; Faraday’s Law: induced emf$\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\PhiB}{dt}$; for N loops:$\mathcal{E} = -N \frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}$.</li> <li>Lenz’s Law: induced current opposes the change in magnetic flux; eddy currents explained via energy conservation.</li> <li>Applications include generators, induction stoves, transformers; include practical demonstrations with computer simulations (Faraday’s Law, Faraday’s Electromagnetic Lab).</li> <li>Practical devices shown: induction coils, Ruhmkorff coil, sparking experiments, data logging for induced emf/current.</li> <li>Discuss the benefits/limitations of electricity generation technologies (e.g., reading data, maglev, etc.).</li> </ul> <h4 id="topic3lightandatoms">Topic 3: Light and atoms</h4> <ul> <li>Light is analyzed as both waves and particles (wave–particle duality); energy and momentum of photons, and the connection to X-rays and lasers. </li> <li>Mass–energy equivalence and implications for energy production.</li> <li>The wave model explains interference and diffraction; the photon model explains photoelectric effect and X-rays; electron diffraction demonstrates wave behavior of matter.</li> <li>Applications include data storage, communications, spectroscopy, and laser technologies; ethical considerations for ionising radiation.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic31wavebehaviouroflight">Subtopic 3.1: Wave behaviour of light</h5> <ul> <li>Oscillating charges radiate electromagnetic waves; relation between oscillation frequency and emitted wave frequency; electromagnetic waves are transverse with perpendicular E and B fields.</li> <li>The speed of light relation:$c = f \lambda$; interference and diffraction introduced via wave model. </li> <li>Polarisation: relate wave orientation to receiver antenna; use experiments to demonstrate polarisation and wave properties.</li> <li>Spectral observations and sources: incandescent, fluorescent, LEDs; spectra analysis via spectroscopes.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic32waveparticleduality">Subtopic 3.2: Wave–particle duality</h5> <ul> <li>Photons: energy and momentum relations:$E = h f = \frac{hc}{\lambda}$; momentum$p = \frac{h}{\lambda}$.</li> <li>Double-slit experiments with electrons illustrate wave behavior of matter; Davisson–Germer experiment demonstrates diffraction of electrons by crystal lattices.</li> <li>Photoelectric effect: electrons emitted when light above threshold frequency; threshold frequency and work function; maximum kinetic energy$K_{\text{max}} = h f - \phi$, where$\phi$is work function; intensity affects the number of emitted electrons, not their energy.</li> <li>Laser physics and applications; stimulation/emission concepts; coherence and monochromatic properties.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic33structureoftheatom">Subtopic 3.3: Structure of the atom</h5> <ul> <li>Line emission spectra reveal discrete energy levels; atoms absorb/emit photons during transitions between levels.</li> <li>Continuous spectra from incandescence; line absorption spectra related to emission spectra; population inversion and stimulated emission underpin lasers.</li> <li>Energy-level diagrams used to represent transitions; ionisation energy and work function relationships; Fraunhofer lines in solar spectrum.</li> <li>Applications include spectroscopy for element identification, astrophysical analyses, and spectroscopy-based diagnostics.</li> </ul> <h5 id="subtopic34standardmodel">Subtopic 3.4: Standard Model</h5> <ul> <li>Three fundamental particle types: gauge bosons, leptons, and quarks; four fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak nuclear, strong nuclear, gravitational—graviton not yet observed).</li> <li>Gauge bosons mediate forces: photons (electromagnetic), W/Z bosons (weak), gluons (strong); gravitons hypothetical.</li> <li>Leptons: six types (electron, electron-neutrino, muon, muon-neutrino, tau, tau-neutrino); charges vary; neutrinos are neutral.</li> <li>Quarks: six types (up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom) with charges +2/3e or -1/3e; baryons (three quarks) and mesons (quark+antiquark).</li> <li>Beta decay processes: beta minus (neutron to proton with emission of electron and antineutrino) and beta plus (proton to neutron with emission of positron and neutrino). </li> <li>Conservation laws (baryon number, lepton number, charge) govern particle interactions; mass–energy equivalence relevant to annihilation processes (E = mc^2).</li> <li>Example explorations include LHC discoveries (multi-quark states), and practical uses such as PET scanners leveraging cyclotrons to produce radioisotopes.</li> </ul> <h3 id="assessmentscopeandrequirements">Assessment scope and requirements</h3> <ul> <li>All Stage 2 subjects include school assessment (70<li>Evidence of learning includes eight assessments: at least two practical investigations, at least one investigation focused on science as a human endeavour, at least three skills and applications tasks, and one examination; at least one investigation or skills/applications task must involve collaboration.</li> <li>Assessment types:<ul> <li>School assessment (70<li>Type 1: Investigations Folio (30<li>Type 2: Skills and Applications Tasks (40<li>External assessment (30<li>Type 3: Examination (30<li>Assessment design criteria: IAE (Investigation, Analysis, and Evaluation) and KA (Knowledge and Application).</li> <li>Specific features of IAE/KA are described as follows:<ul> <li>IAE1: Deconstruction of a problem and design of a physics investigation</li> <li>IAE2: Obtaining, recording, and representation of data, using appropriate conventions</li> <li>IAE3: Analysis and interpretation of data/evidence to justify conclusions</li> <li>IAE4: Evaluation of procedures and their effect on data</li> <li>KA1: Demonstration of knowledge and understanding</li> <li>KA2: Application of physics concepts in new/familiar contexts</li> <li>KA3: Exploration/understanding of interaction between science and society</li> <li>KA4: Communication of knowledge/concepts with appropriate terms and representations</li></ul></li> </ul> <h3 id="schoolassessmentdetails">School assessment details</h3> <h4 id="investigationsfoliotype1">Investigations Folio (Type 1)</h4> <ul> <li>At least two practical investigations and at least one with a science-as-human-endeavour focus; could be more than two investigations.</li> <li>Investigations involve inquiry into physics concepts via practical discovery, data analysis, and/or information interpretation.</li> <li>Each investigation requires an individual report including:<ul> <li>introduction with physics concepts and hypothesis/ investigable question; variables; materials; method; data quantity; ethical/safety considerations</li> <li>results with tables/graphs; analysis and trends; linking results to concepts</li> <li>evaluation of procedures and uncertainties</li> <li>conclusion with justification</li></ul></li> <li>Word limit: maximum 1500 words for written report or equivalent multimodal/oral presentation time; sections included in word count: introduction, analysis of results, evaluation, conclusion.</li> <li>Evidence of deconstruction (the planning/deconstruction process) should be attached with the report (up to 4 sides of A4) as part of the investigation.</li> <li>Formats may be written report, oral presentation, or multimodal product, with guidelines to present data and conclusions.</li> </ul> <h4 id="investigationsfolioscienceasahumanendeavourinvestigationpartoftype1">Investigations Folio: Science as a Human Endeavour Investigation (Part of Type 1)</h4> <ul> <li>An investigation focused on a contemporary example of how science interacts with society; analysis/synthesis from diverse sources; connection to science and society; a conclusion and citations.</li> <li>Example prompts include: discoveries, expert viewpoints, TED talks, public concerns, changes in funding, or blue-sky research.</li> <li>The scientific report capped at 1500 words or 10 minutes for oral/multimodal; must cover investigation background, physics concepts, interaction with society, conclusions, and citations.</li> </ul> <h4 id="assessmenttype2skillsandapplicationstasks40">Assessment Type 2: Skills and Applications Tasks (40<ul> <li>At least three skills and applications tasks; some supervised by teacher (minimum 90 minutes per task; some tasks may be collaborative).</li> <li>Tasks may involve solving problems, designing investigations, contextual applications, data analysis, evaluating procedures, and communicating results in various formats (multimodal, debate, etc.).</li> <li>Tasks should enable students to apply inquiry skills, demonstrate knowledge, and connect to science and society.</li> </ul> <h4 id="externalassessmenttype3examination130minutes">External Assessment Type 3: Examination (130 minutes)</h4> <ul> <li>130-minute exam assessing science inquiry skills and understanding across topics; questions may require applying knowledge from multiple topics and addressing science-as-human-endavour aspects.</li> <li>Exam provides symbol sheet with common quantities, constants, formulae, and SI prefixes.</li> </ul> <h3 id="performancestandards">Performance standards</h3> <ul> <li>Five levels of achievement A–E for each assessment type.</li> <li>The final result is a combination of school assessment and external assessment, reported as a grade from A+ to E−.</li> <li>Performance standards cover two domains:<ul> <li>Investigation, Analysis and Evaluation (IAE)</li> <li>Knowledge and Application (KA)</li></ul></li> <li>The specification provides detailed descriptors for A to E across IAE and KA, describing depth of deconstruction, data handling, analysis, evaluation, knowledge breadth, application in new contexts, understanding of science-society interactions, and communication quality.</li> </ul> <h3 id="assessmentintegrity">Assessment integrity</h3> <ul> <li>The SACE Assuring Assessment Integrity Policy governs assessment integrity.</li> <li>Quality assurance processes are used to ensure consistency/ fairness of grades across schools.</li> <li>The policy is accessible on the SACE website; includes guidelines for ensuring integrity across school and external assessments.</li> </ul> <h3 id="supportmaterials">Support materials</h3> <ul> <li>Online support materials exist for each subject and are updated on the SACE website. Examples include sample assessment plans, annotated tasks, and annotated student responses.</li> <li>Advice on ethical study and research practices is provided on the SACE website (guidelines for ethical conduct of research).</li> </ul> <h3 id="ethicalstudyandresearch">Ethical study and research</h3> <ul> <li>Students and teachers are guided to conduct ethical study and research practices in alignment with SACE guidelines.</li> </ul> <h3 id="formulasequationsandkeynumericalreferencessummary">Formulas, equations, and key numerical references (summary)</h3> <ul> <li>Projectile and motion (illustrative, standard forms):<ul> <li>Horizontal and vertical components:$vx = v0 \cos\theta, \quad vy = v0 \sin\theta - g t$</li> <li>Range (equal height):$R = \frac{v_0^2 \sin(2\theta)}{g}$</li></ul></li> <li>Circular motion and gravitation:<ul> <li>Centripetal acceleration:$a_c = \frac{v^2}{r}$</li> <li>Period-radius relation:$T = \frac{2\pi r}{v}$</li> <li>Gravitational force:$Fg = G \frac{m1 m_2}{r^2}$</li> <li>Orbital dynamics (circular orbit):$v^2 = \frac{GM}{r}$,$T^2 = \frac{4\pi^2}{GM} r^3$</li></ul></li> <li>Special relativity:<ul> <li>Lorentz factor:$\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}$</li> <li>Relativistic momentum:$p = \gamma m v$</li></ul></li> <li>Electric fields:<ul> <li>Coulomb’s law:$F = k \frac{q1 q2}{r^2}, \quad k = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}$</li> <li>Electric field of a point charge:$\mathbf{E} = k \frac{q}{r^2} \hat{r}$</li> <li>Parallel-plate field:$E = \frac{\Delta V}{d}$</li> <li>Electric potential energy:$U = q \Delta V$</li></ul></li> <li>Magnetic fields and forces:<ul> <li>Magnetic field of a long straight wire:$B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r}$</li> <li>Magnetic force on a moving charge:$\mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}$; for perpendicular:$F = q v B$</li> <li>Cyclotron radius:$r = \frac{m v}{q B}$</li> <li>Cyclotron period:$T = \frac{2\pi m}{q B}$</li></ul></li> <li>Electromagnetic induction:<ul> <li>Magnetic flux:$\Phi_B = \int \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{A}$</li> <li>Faraday’s law:$\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}$</li> <li>For N loops:$\mathcal{E} = -N \frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}$</li></ul></li> <li>Electromagnetic waves and light:<ul> <li>Wave relation:$c = f \lambda$</li> <li>Photon energy/momentum:$E = h f = \frac{hc}{\lambda}, \quad p = \frac{h}{\lambda}$</li> <li>Photoelectric effect:$K{\text{max}} = h f - \phi$, threshold frequency:$f0 = \frac{\phi}{h}$, work function$\phi = W$</li></ul></li> <li>X-rays:<ul> <li>Bremsstrahlung peak: maximum frequency related to tube voltage:$E_{\text{max}} \approx eV$</li> <li>Characteristic X-rays present as peaks at characteristic energies.</li></ul></li> <li>Interference/diffraction (light):<ul> <li>Two-slit:$d \sin\theta = m \lambda$; intensity patterns from interference</li> <li>Gratings:$d \sin\theta_m = m \lambda$, for multiple orders</li> <li>Transmission diffraction grating: maxima conditions and wavelength determination</li></ul></li> <li>Wave–particle duality and atomic structure:<ul> <li>de Broglie:$\lambda = \frac{h}{p} = \frac{h}{mv}$</li> <li>Hydrogen line spectra and energy level transitions; selection rules; line absorption vs emission</li></ul></li> <li>Structure of the atom and Standard Model:<ul> <li>Beta decay relations:$n \rightarrow p + e^- + \bar{\nu}e$(beta−);$p \rightarrow n + e^+ + \nue$(beta+)</li> <li>Conservation laws: baryon number, lepton number, and charge conservation; mass–energy relation for annihilation:$E = mc^2$$