Stage 2 Physics 2024 Notes

Introduction

This document summarizes the Stage 2 Physics 2024 subject outline used in Australian and SACE International schools (Jan 2024–Dec 2024 for general teaching; May/June 2024–Mar 2025 for SACE International).
It is published by the SACE Board of South Australia and outlines subject description, capabilities, safety, learning scope, content, assessment, and support materials.

Subject description

Physics is a 10-credit subject at Stage 1 and a 20-credit subject at Stage 2.
Focus: using qualitative and quantitative models, laws, and theories to understand matter, forces, energy, and their interactions.
Physics explains natural phenomena from subatomic to macroscopic scales and makes predictions about them.
The field develops through evidence from observations, measurements, and experimentation over centuries.
Studying physics helps students understand how evidence refines models/theories and enables technologies/innovations.
Skills include gathering, analysing, and interpreting primary and secondary data to investigate phenomena and technologies, and understanding the human endeavour of science.
Students explore how physicists develop new understanding and produce innovative solutions to everyday and global problems.
Physics pathways include engineering, renewable energy, communications, materials, transport safety, medical science, scientific research, and astronomy.

Capabilities

Seven capabilities identified by SACE:
- literacy
- numeracy
- information and communication technology (ICT) capability
- critical and creative thinking
- personal and social capability
- ethical understanding
- intercultural understanding
Each capability is developed through specific examples in the subject (e.g., interpreting data, modelling, ICT use, collaboration, ethical considerations, and cross-cultural awareness).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge, cultures, and perspectives

In partnership with Indigenous communities, the SACE Board supports high-quality learning that respects diverse Indigenous knowledge and perspectives.
Teachers are encouraged to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge/perspectives by:
- providing opportunities to learn about Indigenous histories, cultures, and contemporary experiences
- recognising contributions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to Australian society
- drawing attention to the value of Indigenous knowledge from past and present
- using culturally appropriate protocols when engaging with Indigenous peoples and communities

Health and safety

Schools have duty of care under Work Health and Safety Act 2012 and relevant guidelines.
Laboratory safety practices include:
- use equipment under supervision
- follow safety procedures for apparatus handling
- wear appropriate safety gear
- special care for electrical equipment, ionising/non-ionising radiation, and lasers

Learning scope and requirements

Learning requirements

Stage 2 Physics requires students to:

apply science inquiry skills to deconstruct problems and design/conduct physics investigations with safe, ethical practices
obtain, record, represent, analyse, and interpret investigation results
evaluate procedures and results, analyse evidence to justify conclusions
develop/apply knowledge and understanding of physics concepts in new/familiar contexts
explore/understand science as a human endeavour
communicate physics knowledge using appropriate terms/conventions/representations

Content

Stage 2 Physics is a 20-credit subject and integrates three strands:
- science inquiry skills
- science as a human endeavour
- science understanding
Three topics:
- Topic 1: Motion and relativity
- Topic 2: Electricity and magnetism
- Topic 3: Light and atoms
Topics can be sequenced to suit groups; contexts are provided as possible inquiry approaches; they are not exhaustive.

Detailed topic structure

Topic 1: Motion and relativity

Builds on Stage 1 concepts of forces and energy; focuses on relationships between force and acceleration in different contexts.
Key ideas include:
- acceleration due to gravity on projectile motion; vector nature of gravity
- projectile motion described/interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively
- Newton’s Laws introduce vector momentum; conservation of momentum used to identify subatomic particles relevant to the Standard Model (Topic 3: Light and atoms)
- centripetal acceleration; extension to satellites via Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
- connection between centripetal acceleration and particle motion in cyclotrons (Topic 2)
- Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion and their use in explaining satellite/planetary motion
- Special Relativity: matter/energy relation at high speeds; postulates and experimental confirmations
Subtopics and relations:
- Subtopic 1.1: Projectile motion
- describes motion without/with air resistance; quantitative investigations
- contexts: sports, vehicle designs, terminal speed
- Subtopic 1.2: Forces and momentum
- Subtopic 1.3: Circular motion and gravitation
- Subtopic 1.4: Relativity

Subtopic 1.1: Projectile motion (science understanding contexts)

Constant acceleration relationships link displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Horizontal/vertical components treated independently; key equations (illustrative):
- displacement components: $x = v0 \, t \cos\theta, \quad y = v0 \, t \sin\theta - \tfrac{1}{2} g t^2$
- velocity components: $vx = v0 \cos\theta, \quad vy = v0 \sin\theta - g t$
Magnitudes using vector/triangle methods; use of trigonometry for velocity components and path angles.
Maximum range occurs at launch angle that optimizes horizontal range; general statements about 45° for equal launch/landing heights.
Examples/connections: monkey-hunter problem, sport trajectories, analysis of sporting activities such as shot put, javelin, golf, aerial skiing.
Apparatus/contextual: projectile launcher for investigating launch angle/height effects on range.
Core relationships shown (illustrative):
- horizontal range $R = \frac{v_0^2 \sin(2\theta)}{g}$ when landing height equals launch height.

Subtopic 1.2: Forces and momentum

Momentum concept: momentum $p = mv$ ; kinetic energy $K = \tfrac{1}{2} mv^2$ (energy discussions linked to momentum).
Newton’s Second Law in vector form and one/two-dimensional vector diagrams to show momentum change: $\Delta p = \mathbf{F} \Delta t$
Conservation of momentum in two-dimensional collisions; use of vector addition/subtraction for momentum before/after events.
Applications: neutrino discovery discussions; public debate on space exploration economics.
Key analytic relation: Three forms of Newton’s second law in 1D/2D as needed; matrix-like vector diagrams used for momentum changes.

Subtopic 1.3: Circular motion and gravitation

Centripetal acceleration: $a_c = \frac{v^2}{r}$ and motion in a circle with constant speed.
Relationship of speed, radius, and period: $T = \frac{2 \pi r}{v}$ and $v = \frac{2 \pi r}{T}$ .
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: $Fg = G \frac{m1 m_2}{r^2}$ ; applicable to satellites, planets, and stars; Newton’s laws explain Kepler’s laws.
Kepler’s Laws (qualitative/quantitative): First Law (elliptical orbits), Second Law (equal areas in equal times), Third Law (orbital period relates to orbit radius); for circular orbits, $T^2 = \frac{4 \pi^2}{G M} r^3$ where M is the central mass.
Centripetal acceleration connections to cyclotron motion and satellite motion; link to classical and modern physics (special relativity) context.

Subtopic 1.4: Relativity

Special Relativity: two postulates
- laws of physics are same in all inertial frames
- speed of light in vacuum is constant: $c$
Consequences include time dilation, length contraction, and relativistic momentum; Lorentz factor $\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}$ .
Dynamics include relativistic momentum $p = \gamma m v$ and energy considerations; time dilation measured with atomic clocks; twin paradox and length contraction discussions.
Applications/examples: GPS consideration, high-speed particle experiments; discussion of experimental verifications.

Topic 2: Electricity and magnetism

Builds on Stage 1 electricity concepts and Stage 2 motion/circular motion. Introduces fields and their pictorial representations.
Key ideas: interaction of charges in fields, motion of charges in electric and magnetic fields, and applications in cyclotrons and synchrotrons; radiation generation and EM spectrum links.
Concepts also connected to health/medical physics (shielding, linear accelerators, X-ray tubes) and ICT data storage/transmission.

Subtopic 2.1: Electric fields

Coulomb’s Law and superposition: superposition for multiple charges and consistency with Newton’s Third Law.
Electric field of point charge: \mathbf{E} = k \frac{q}{r^2} \hat{r}, \quad k = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}
Parallel plate field (uniform): E = \frac{\Delta V}{d} $; potential difference relates to electric potential energy:$ U = q\Delta V.
Relationship/contrast with gravitational field; field diagrams and vector addition for multiple charges (two-point charges or plates).
Practical demonstrations: Van de Graaff generator to show repulsion of like charges; electric field mapping with sensors/visualisation tools.

Subtopic 2.2: Motion of charged particles in electric fields

Work done by electric field and potential difference: the electronvolt as a unit of energy; relation between energy changes and potential differences: W = q \Delta V (work-energy viewpoint).
Electric fields between parallel plates: magnitude E = \frac{\Delta V}{d}; use in energy work and acceleration concepts; connect to kinetic energy changes in charged particles.
Concepts of electric potential energy and gravitational analogy; links to ion thrusters and particle accelerators (discipline cross-links).
Emphasise energy units and conversions between joules and electronvolts: 1\,\text{eV} = 1.602\times 10^{-19}\,\text{J}.

Subtopic 2.3: Magnetic fields

Magnetic fields and lines around magnets and current-carrying conductors; right-hand rule for direction.
Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor: \mathbf{F} = I \mathbf{L} \times \mathbf{B} $; magnitude$ F = I L B \sin\theta.
Magnetic field strength near solenoids, and general comparisons with electric/magnetic field strengths.
Field strength formula for a long straight wire: B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r}.
Use of magnetic fields in devices like cyclotrons, synchrotrons, mass spectrometers, electron microscopes, maglev trains, etc.

Subtopic 2.4: Motion of charged particles in magnetic fields

Force on a moving charge in a uniform magnetic field: \mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} $; magnitude for perpendicular motion:$ F = q v B.
Resulting circular motion due to perpendicular velocity and magnetic field; centripetal force provided by magnetic interaction.
Applications: deflection of ions in cyclotrons; velocity dependence of magnetic force and comparisons to electric force.
Educational demonstrations: Teltron tubes, electron/mass measurements, etc.

Subtopic 2.5: Electromagnetic induction

Magnetic flux: \PhiB = \int \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{A} $; Faraday’s Law: induced emf$ \mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\PhiB}{dt} $; for N loops:$ \mathcal{E} = -N \frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}.
Lenz’s Law: induced current opposes the change in magnetic flux; eddy currents explained via energy conservation.
Applications include generators, induction stoves, transformers; include practical demonstrations with computer simulations (Faraday’s Law, Faraday’s Electromagnetic Lab).
Practical devices shown: induction coils, Ruhmkorff coil, sparking experiments, data logging for induced emf/current.
Discuss the benefits/limitations of electricity generation technologies (e.g., reading data, maglev, etc.).

Topic 3: Light and atoms

Light is analyzed as both waves and particles (wave–particle duality); energy and momentum of photons, and the connection to X-rays and lasers.
Mass–energy equivalence and implications for energy production.
The wave model explains interference and diffraction; the photon model explains photoelectric effect and X-rays; electron diffraction demonstrates wave behavior of matter.
Applications include data storage, communications, spectroscopy, and laser technologies; ethical considerations for ionising radiation.

Subtopic 3.1: Wave behaviour of light

Oscillating charges radiate electromagnetic waves; relation between oscillation frequency and emitted wave frequency; electromagnetic waves are transverse with perpendicular E and B fields.
The speed of light relation: c = f \lambda; interference and diffraction introduced via wave model.
Polarisation: relate wave orientation to receiver antenna; use experiments to demonstrate polarisation and wave properties.
Spectral observations and sources: incandescent, fluorescent, LEDs; spectra analysis via spectroscopes.

Subtopic 3.2: Wave–particle duality

Photons: energy and momentum relations: E = h f = \frac{hc}{\lambda} $; momentum$ p = \frac{h}{\lambda}.
Double-slit experiments with electrons illustrate wave behavior of matter; Davisson–Germer experiment demonstrates diffraction of electrons by crystal lattices.
Photoelectric effect: electrons emitted when light above threshold frequency; threshold frequency and work function; maximum kinetic energy K_{\text{max}} = h f - \phi $, where$ \phi is work function; intensity affects the number of emitted electrons, not their energy.
Laser physics and applications; stimulation/emission concepts; coherence and monochromatic properties.

Subtopic 3.3: Structure of the atom

Line emission spectra reveal discrete energy levels; atoms absorb/emit photons during transitions between levels.
Continuous spectra from incandescence; line absorption spectra related to emission spectra; population inversion and stimulated emission underpin lasers.
Energy-level diagrams used to represent transitions; ionisation energy and work function relationships; Fraunhofer lines in solar spectrum.
Applications include spectroscopy for element identification, astrophysical analyses, and spectroscopy-based diagnostics.

Subtopic 3.4: Standard Model

Three fundamental particle types: gauge bosons, leptons, and quarks; four fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak nuclear, strong nuclear, gravitational—graviton not yet observed).
Gauge bosons mediate forces: photons (electromagnetic), W/Z bosons (weak), gluons (strong); gravitons hypothetical.
Leptons: six types (electron, electron-neutrino, muon, muon-neutrino, tau, tau-neutrino); charges vary; neutrinos are neutral.
Quarks: six types (up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom) with charges +2/3e or -1/3e; baryons (three quarks) and mesons (quark+antiquark).
Beta decay processes: beta minus (neutron to proton with emission of electron and antineutrino) and beta plus (proton to neutron with emission of positron and neutrino).
Conservation laws (baryon number, lepton number, charge) govern particle interactions; mass–energy equivalence relevant to annihilation processes (E = mc^2).
Example explorations include LHC discoveries (multi-quark states), and practical uses such as PET scanners leveraging cyclotrons to produce radioisotopes.

Assessment scope and requirements

All Stage 2 subjects include school assessment (70%) and external assessment (30%).
Evidence of learning includes eight assessments: at least two practical investigations, at least one investigation focused on science as a human endeavour, at least three skills and applications tasks, and one examination; at least one investigation or skills/applications task must involve collaboration.
Assessment types:
- School assessment (70% total):
- Type 1: Investigations Folio (30%)
- Type 2: Skills and Applications Tasks (40%)
- External assessment (30%):
- Type 3: Examination (30%)
Assessment design criteria: IAE (Investigation, Analysis, and Evaluation) and KA (Knowledge and Application).
Specific features of IAE/KA are described as follows:
- IAE1: Deconstruction of a problem and design of a physics investigation
- IAE2: Obtaining, recording, and representation of data, using appropriate conventions
- IAE3: Analysis and interpretation of data/evidence to justify conclusions
- IAE4: Evaluation of procedures and their effect on data
- KA1: Demonstration of knowledge and understanding
- KA2: Application of physics concepts in new/familiar contexts
- KA3: Exploration/understanding of interaction between science and society
- KA4: Communication of knowledge/concepts with appropriate terms and representations

School assessment details

Investigations Folio (Type 1)

At least two practical investigations and at least one with a science-as-human-endeavour focus; could be more than two investigations.
Investigations involve inquiry into physics concepts via practical discovery, data analysis, and/or information interpretation.
Each investigation requires an individual report including:
- introduction with physics concepts and hypothesis/ investigable question; variables; materials; method; data quantity; ethical/safety considerations
- results with tables/graphs; analysis and trends; linking results to concepts
- evaluation of procedures and uncertainties
- conclusion with justification
Word limit: maximum 1500 words for written report or equivalent multimodal/oral presentation time; sections included in word count: introduction, analysis of results, evaluation, conclusion.
Evidence of deconstruction (the planning/deconstruction process) should be attached with the report (up to 4 sides of A4) as part of the investigation.
Formats may be written report, oral presentation, or multimodal product, with guidelines to present data and conclusions.

Investigations Folio: Science as a Human Endeavour Investigation (Part of Type 1)

An investigation focused on a contemporary example of how science interacts with society; analysis/synthesis from diverse sources; connection to science and society; a conclusion and citations.
Example prompts include: discoveries, expert viewpoints, TED talks, public concerns, changes in funding, or blue-sky research.
The scientific report capped at 1500 words or 10 minutes for oral/multimodal; must cover investigation background, physics concepts, interaction with society, conclusions, and citations.

Assessment Type 2: Skills and Applications Tasks (40%)

At least three skills and applications tasks; some supervised by teacher (minimum 90 minutes per task; some tasks may be collaborative).
Tasks may involve solving problems, designing investigations, contextual applications, data analysis, evaluating procedures, and communicating results in various formats (multimodal, debate, etc.).
Tasks should enable students to apply inquiry skills, demonstrate knowledge, and connect to science and society.

External Assessment Type 3: Examination (130 minutes)

130-minute exam assessing science inquiry skills and understanding across topics; questions may require applying knowledge from multiple topics and addressing science-as-human-endavour aspects.
Exam provides symbol sheet with common quantities, constants, formulae, and SI prefixes.

Performance standards

Five levels of achievement A–E for each assessment type.
The final result is a combination of school assessment and external assessment, reported as a grade from A+ to E−.
Performance standards cover two domains:
- Investigation, Analysis and Evaluation (IAE)
- Knowledge and Application (KA)
The specification provides detailed descriptors for A to E across IAE and KA, describing depth of deconstruction, data handling, analysis, evaluation, knowledge breadth, application in new contexts, understanding of science-society interactions, and communication quality.

Assessment integrity

The SACE Assuring Assessment Integrity Policy governs assessment integrity.
Quality assurance processes are used to ensure consistency/ fairness of grades across schools.
The policy is accessible on the SACE website; includes guidelines for ensuring integrity across school and external assessments.

Support materials

Online support materials exist for each subject and are updated on the SACE website. Examples include sample assessment plans, annotated tasks, and annotated student responses.
Advice on ethical study and research practices is provided on the SACE website (guidelines for ethical conduct of research).

Ethical study and research

Students and teachers are guided to conduct ethical study and research practices in alignment with SACE guidelines.

Formulas, equations, and key numerical references (summary)

Projectile and motion (illustrative, standard forms):
- Horizontal and vertical components: vx = v0 \cos\theta, \quad vy = v0 \sin\theta - g t
- Range (equal height): R = \frac{v_0^2 \sin(2\theta)}{g}
Circular motion and gravitation:
- Centripetal acceleration: a_c = \frac{v^2}{r}
- Period-radius relation: T = \frac{2\pi r}{v}
- Gravitational force: Fg = G \frac{m1 m_2}{r^2}
- Orbital dynamics (circular orbit): v^2 = \frac{GM}{r} $,$ T^2 = \frac{4\pi^2}{GM} r^3
Special relativity:
- Lorentz factor: \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}
- Relativistic momentum: p = \gamma m v
Electric fields:
- Coulomb’s law: F = k \frac{q1 q2}{r^2}, \quad k = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}
- Electric field of a point charge: \mathbf{E} = k \frac{q}{r^2} \hat{r}
- Parallel-plate field: E = \frac{\Delta V}{d}
- Electric potential energy: U = q \Delta V
Magnetic fields and forces:
- Magnetic field of a long straight wire: B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r}
- Magnetic force on a moving charge: \mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} $; for perpendicular:$ F = q v B
- Cyclotron radius: r = \frac{m v}{q B}
- Cyclotron period: T = \frac{2\pi m}{q B}
Electromagnetic induction:
- Magnetic flux: \Phi_B = \int \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{A}
- Faraday’s law: \mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}
- For N loops: \mathcal{E} = -N \frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}
Electromagnetic waves and light:
- Wave relation: c = f \lambda
- Photon energy/momentum: E = h f = \frac{hc}{\lambda}, \quad p = \frac{h}{\lambda}
- Photoelectric effect: K{\text{max}} = h f - \phi $, threshold frequency:$ f0 = \frac{\phi}{h} $, work function$ \phi = W
X-rays:
- Bremsstrahlung peak: maximum frequency related to tube voltage: E_{\text{max}} \approx eV
- Characteristic X-rays present as peaks at characteristic energies.
Interference/diffraction (light):
- Two-slit: d \sin\theta = m \lambda; intensity patterns from interference
- Gratings: d \sin\theta_m = m \lambda, for multiple orders
- Transmission diffraction grating: maxima conditions and wavelength determination
Wave–particle duality and atomic structure:
- de Broglie: \lambda = \frac{h}{p} = \frac{h}{mv}
- Hydrogen line spectra and energy level transitions; selection rules; line absorption vs emission
Structure of the atom and Standard Model:
- Beta decay relations: n \rightarrow p + e^- + \bar{\nu}e $(beta−);$ p \rightarrow n + e^+ + \nue (beta+)
- Conservation laws: baryon number, lepton number, and charge conservation; mass–energy relation for annihilation: E = mc^2$$

Notes on formatting and use

All mathematical expressions are presented in LaTeX and enclosed in double dollar signs for clarity.
Concepts are organized to support replacing or summarizing the original source content for exam preparation.
Where specific page references were garbled, standard physics relationships and commonly accepted forms have been provided to ensure comprehensiveness and usability for study and review.
For any assessment-specific formatting or institutional requirements (e.g., word limits or citation styles), adapt the Investigations Folio and Skills/Applications tasks accordingly while preserving the core content.