Comprehensive Study Notes on Indian Nationalism (Exhaustive) : Indian Nationalism (1915-1931)

The Rise of Indian Nationalism Post-1915

• Evolution of the Movement: After Mahatma Gandhi’s return from South Africa in $1915$, the Indian national movement underwent a sharp transformation, shifting from localized protests to large-scale, nation-wide movements.
• Impact of World War I:
  • The British government increased defense spending, which directly led to an increase in taxes imposed on Indians.
  • Economic hardship spread throughout the country due to these financial burdens.
  • The forced recruitment of Indian soldiers for the war effort created deep-seated resentment among the civilian population.
  • Anti-British sentiment was further intensified by agrarian distress, famine, and the spread of disease, which collectively fostered a sense of belonging and national unity among the people.

Key Legislative Acts and Early Catalytic Events

• Gandhi’s Early Satyagraha Campaigns ($1917$ – $1918$):
  • Champaran ($1917$): Gandhi’s first major successful regional campaign.
  • Kheda ($1918$): Another successful demonstration of Satyagraha on a regional scale.
  • These early successes encouraged Gandhi to launch a nation-wide movement against the British.
• The Rowlatt Act ($1919$):
  • Known as the "Black Act."
  • It allowed the British government to detain nationalist leaders without trial for up to period of $2$ years.
  • It served as a legal tool for arresting and suppressing political activists.
  • Reaction: This act prompted nation-wide peaceful protests.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (Amritsar, April $13$, $1919$):
  • Preceded by police firing on April $10$, which led to the imposition of martial law.
  • Hundreds of people were killed when British forces fired on a Baisakhi gathering.
  • The massacre caused widespread outrage across India.
  • Outcome: Gandhi suspended the Rowlatt Satyagraha but anti-British feelings became significantly more intense.

The Non-Cooperation Movement ($1920$ – $1922$)

• Definition: Non-Cooperation is defined as the mass withdrawal of Indian cooperation from British goods, titles, and institutions, based on non-violent resistance.
• Strategy and Launch:
  • Proposed during the Kolkata Session (September $1920$).
  • Formally accepted at the Nagpur Session (December $1920$).
  • Objective: As stated by Gandhi in his book Hind Swadesh, the movement aimed to make British rule collapse within a single year by withdrawing cooperation.
• Modes of Participation:
  • Political: Boycotting British-run schools, courts, and legislative councils.
  • Social: Teachers stopped teaching, students left their schools, and lawyers abandoned their legal practices.
  • Economic: Refusal to buy foreign goods. The market share of Indian goods increased significantly, while the import of foreign cloth fell by approximately $50 \%$.
  • Khadi: Promotion of hand-spun cloth (Khadi) became a symbol of self-reliance, though its high cost and scarcity compared to mill-made cloth limited its uptake among the poor.
• Limitations and Collapse:
  • Economic Constraints: Lack of indigenous industry and no local factories meant Indians remained dependent on British goods for certain tools and clothing.
  • Rural Hardships: Widespread poverty and famine made it difficult for rural populations to sustain a prolonged boycott.
  • Communal Tensions: The Khilafat issue (arising from the defeat of the Ottoman Empire) was used to unite Hindus and Muslims, but communal solidarity remained fragile.
  • End of Movement: Gandhi called off the movement in February $1922$ following violent outbreaks and police repression.

The Civil Disobedience Movement ($1930$ – $1931$)

• Definition: Civil Disobedience involves the deliberate, non-violent violation of unjust laws, accompanied by a willingness to accept the resulting legal penalties.
• Political Prelude:
  • Economic Depression: The collapse of agricultural prices led to severe rural distress.
  • Simon Commission ($1928$): An all-British committee appointed to look into the Indian constitutional system. Because it had no Indian members, it was met with fierce opposition and the slogan "Simon Go Back."
  • Congress Session ($1929$): Passed the "Full-Swaraj" (Purna Swaraj) resolution and designated January $26$, $1930$, as a symbolic day of independence.
• The Salt March (Dandi March):
  • Ultimatum: On January $31$, $1930$, Gandhi wrote to Lord Irwin with $11$ demands, including the repeal of the salt tax.
  • The Journey: On March $12$, $1930$, Gandhi بدأ (started) his march from Sabarmati to Dandi, covering approximately $240$ miles over $24$ days.
  • The Act of Defiance: On April $6$, $1930$, Gandhi reached the coast and made salt by evaporating seawater, symbolically breaking the British salt monopoly law.
• Mass Participation and Response:
  • Peasants, students, workers, and women participated by refusing to pay taxes and making salt.
  • British authorities responded with mass arrests, including the arrest of Gandhi in May $1930$.
  • The Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Signed on March $5$, $1931$, leading to a temporary suspension of the movement.

Participant Groups and Their Motives

• Rich Peasants and Landlords: Sought tax relief on land revenue and rent reductions; they were strong supporters of the Congress.
• Industrialists: Wanted protection against British trade restrictions and the expansion of Indian industry following the needs that arose after World War I.
• Workers: Focused on demanding higher wages and reduced working hours. Some resisted participation due to fear of industrial repression.
• Women: Viewed participation as a "sacred duty." They organized local satyagrahas, manufactured salt, and produced Khadi.
• Dalits and Lower Castes: Often felt excluded from the nationalist narrative. B.R. Ambedkar critiqued the Congress for what he perceived as a dominance by upper-caste interests.
• Muslims: Concerned with communal representation and the Khilafat issue. Many formed separate political fronts like the Muslim League, which at times limited full participation in Congress-led movements.

Cultural and Symbolic Dimensions of Nationalism

• Folk Traditions: Nationalist leaders used folk tales, songs, and poems to mobilize public sentiment. Figures like Rabindranath Tagore and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee played key roles in documenting and disseminating these traditions.
• Visual Art: Abanindranath Tagore’s painting of "Bharat Mata" (Mother India) was a central icon that reinforced national pride.
• National Flags:
  • Swadeshi Flag: Used in Bengal during the Swadeshi movement.
  • Swaraj Flag: Designed by Gandhi during the Non-Cooperation movement to represent the struggle for self-rule.
• Collective Identity: These cultural processes (music, folk narratives, and visual symbols) functioned alongside political actions to strengthen the sense of a shared Indian identity.

Political Parties and Institutional Responses

• Indian National Congress (INC): The primary leader of non-violent mass movements; organized the major campaigns and negotiated with the British.
• Khilafat Committee: Aligned with the INC in the early $1920$s to mobilize Muslim support, but dissolved following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
• Muslim League: Generally cautious of mass movements led by the Hindu-majority Congress, emphasizing separate interests and eventually pushing for a separate nation.
• Simon Commission: A British-appointed body that catalyzed Indian demands for self-government after being met with total rejection by all Indian parties.
• Lord Irwin (Viceroy): Attempted to maintain control through limited constitutional reforms, such as the Irwin Declaration in $1931$.

Comparative Overview: Non-Cooperation vs. Civil Disobedience

• Core Tactic:
  • Non-Cooperation: Focused on the boycott of British goods, titles, and institutions.
  • Civil Disobedience: Focused on the deliberate breaking of laws (e.g., the salt tax).
• Leadership:
  • Non-Cooperation: Gandhi, Motilal Nehru, Maulana Azad.
  • Civil Disobedience: Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose.
• Geographic Reach:
  • Non-Cooperation: Primarily concentrated in Punjab, Bengal, and Gujarat.
  • Civil Disobedience: Pan-India reach with major hubs in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Punjab.
• Participation:
  • Non-Cooperation: High rural participation but limited urban industrial support.
  • Civil Disobedience: A broader mix of urban and rural participants; peaked in terms of women’s involvement.
• Outcomes:
  • Non-Cooperation: Called off in February $1922$ due to violence.
  • Civil Disobedience: Led to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact ($1931$), resulting in partial concessions; the movement was resumed later after the pact's terms were deemed insufficient.
• Limitations:
  • Non-Cooperation: Hindered by economic constraints and emerging communal tensions.
  • Civil Disobedience: Characterized by caste-based exclusion, limited cooperation from the Muslim League, and violence in specific regions.