Module 09: Sociology Pt. 2

Theories on Deviance: A Study Guide on Functionalism and Labeling Theory

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was a foundational figure in sociology, largely influencing the understanding of how societies function and maintain order.
His work laid essential groundwork for modern sociology and continues to influence the understanding of social structures.

Durkheim perceived society not as a mere collection of individuals but as a complex interconnected system.
Each element in society plays a significant role in maintaining societal integrity and order.

Deviance is defined as behavior that deviates from societal norms. Durkheim presented a positive view of deviance, arguing that it serves essential functions in society.
Deviance is not merely a problem; it is a necessary component of a healthy society.

Clarifying Social Norms
- Deviance draws attention to societal norms and values through the reactions it elicits from the community.
- Example: A student using a phone during a lecture disrupts the class, prompting responses that reinforce the expectation of respect and attention in such settings.
- This clarifies the acceptable behaviors and reinforces the boundaries of the community.
Encouraging Social Change
- Deviance can instigate positive social change when individuals or groups challenge unjust norms.
- Example: The Civil Rights Movement was once viewed as deviant, yet it led to significant societal changes and progressive legislation.
- Even locally, when students advocate for mental health services, they challenge prevailing policies, fostering new norms that support inclusivity and modern needs.
Fostering Social Unity
- Collective responses to deviance can strengthen social cohesion within communities.
- Example: When an act of vandalism occurs on a campus, the community may unite to condemn it, thus reinforcing shared values and commitments.
- A larger parallel can be seen in national responses to tragedies, such as the unity displayed in the wake of significant events like 9/11, which reinforces communal resilience.

Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie, defined as a state where societal norms break down, leading to uncertainty about acceptable behavior.
Example: During the shift to remote learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic, both students and teachers faced challenges in navigating new expectations, leading to a temporary breakdown in social cohesion.
Anomie increases the likelihood of deviance as individuals lack clear guidance, but it also serves as a catalyst for creating new norms that reflect changing circumstances.

Durkheim invites us to reconsider deviance, presenting it as integral to societal stability and growth rather than purely as a disruption.
By clarifying norms, encouraging change, and unifying communities, deviance contributes meaningfully to social resilience and order.

Howard Becker (1928-2003) introduced the labeling theory within sociology, focusing on how societal reactions create deviance.

Deviance is not inherent in actions but is defined by the labels society assigns to them.
This theory falls under the broader framework of symbolic interactionism, emphasizing the meanings derived from social interactions.

Establishment of Norms
- Social groups formulate rules that define acceptable behavior, which helps maintain order within society.
Application of Labels
- When individuals violate these norms, society labels them as deviant, leading to a biased application of social judgments.
Influence of Power Dynamics
- The application of labels is influenced by social contexts and power dynamics, impacting who is labeled and how.
- Example: Drug use was criminalized in Black communities during the crack epidemic, whereas the opioid crisis in largely white communities was framed as a public health issue.

Primary Deviance: Initial acts of rule-breaking that do not alter the individual's self-image significantly.
Secondary Deviance: Occurs when society labels an individual as deviant, leading them to internalize that label and adopt deviant behaviors as part of their identity.
- Becker's study "Becoming a Marijuana User" illustrates this concept, showing how marijuana use became deviant through societal labeling rather than inherent qualities of the act itself.

This theory highlights how societal reactions to behaviors define what is considered deviant and reinforces the notion that deviance is a socially constructed concept.
Challenges the idea that deviance is merely tied to individual actions, emphasizing the importance of societal perceptions and interactions in shaping identities.

Becker's labeling theory expands our understanding of deviance by illustrating the importance of social processes in defining deviant behavior.
Understanding how society shapes individual identities through labeling provides insight into the broader dynamics of power and social values.

Developed in the early 1980s by James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling, this theory focuses on visible disorder and its connection to crime.

During the early 1980s, many American cities faced high crime rates, economic hardship, and visible urban decay characterized by vandalism, drug use, and abandoned properties.
Concerns arose that visible disorder would lead to more serious criminal activity and diminished public safety and community morale.

The theory posits that small signs of neglect (e.g., broken windows, graffiti) signal a neighborhood's vulnerability to crime.
If minor offenses and signs of disorder are left unaddressed, they can create an atmosphere of lawlessness, inviting more severe criminal activities.
Example: The cleaning of graffiti in New York City's subway system during the 1980s was part of the approach to signal that no sign of disorder would be tolerated.

The theory led to policing strategies focusing on minor infractions, with the belief that maintaining order would prevent serious crime.
Under Mayor Rudy Giuliani and Police Commissioner William Bratton in New York City during the 1990s, broken windows policing became widely implemented, focusing on low-level offenses as a crime prevention strategy.

Sociologist Bernard Harcourt's book "Illusions of Order" challenges the effectiveness of broken windows theory, arguing that limited empirical evidence links it to crime reduction, positing that broader socioeconomic factors had a greater influence on crime rates.
Jeffrey Fagan critiques the theory for being associated with over-policing and racial profiling, leading to disproportionately targeting Black and Latino individuals.
Critics argue that this policing strategy fosters distrust between communities and law enforcement.

Due to these critiques, there's a growing shift toward community-oriented strategies that focus on trust and addressing root causes of crime instead of merely cleaning up visible disorder.

While broken windows theory continues to significantly influence urban policing and management strategies, it serves as a case study on the complexities surrounding public safety, reflecting broader social dynamics and power structures.