Causes of Crime
Classical School and Neoclassical Theories
Classical school of criminology: This perspective views the criminal as a rational actor possessing free will and the capacity to choose deliberately between conventional and criminal paths. It posits that individuals make a conscious decision to commit crime, weighing the potential pleasure gained against the pain of punishment. Key proponents like Cesare Beccaria argued for a justice system based on proportionality, certainty, and swiftness of punishment to deter crime.
Neoclassical school of criminology: While retaining the core idea of free will, the neoclassical school introduces considerations for differing criminal circumstances. It acknowledges that not all individuals possess the same capacity for rational thought, recognizing factors such as mental incapacity, age (e.g., minors), and other mitigating circumstances that may reduce culpability. This perspective allows for variations in sentencing based on individual differences.
Rational choice theory: A contemporary extension of classical thought, this theory posits that criminals engage in a cost-benefit analysis, believing the perceived benefits of committing a crime (e.g., financial gain, thrill, status) outweigh the perceived risks of getting caught and punished.
The Positivist School
Positivist school of criminology: In stark contrast to the classical school, the positivist school views criminal behavior as primarily a product of biological, psychological, and sociological forces outside a person’s complete control. This approach emphasizes scientific methodology and empirical data to understand the causes of crime. Pioneering figures like Cesare Lombroso, often considered the 'father of modern criminology,' sought to identify biological markers of criminality.
Atavism: A concept primarily associated with Lombroso, atavism suggests that criminals are evolutionary throwbacks, or 'primitive,' possessing identifiable physical (e.g., asymmetrical faces, large ears, extra fingers/toes) and mental characteristics that differentiate them from non-criminals. This theory, though largely discredited in its original form, laid the groundwork for biological explanations of crime.
Neurobiological Factors of Brain Function
Neurobiological Factors of Brain Function 1:
Poor impulse control: A significant factor in delinquent behavior, particularly in teenagers, due to the prefrontal cortex (responsible for executive functions like decision-making, planning, and impulse control) being one of the last brain regions to fully develop.
In adults, brain functioning can be adversely affected by disease (e.g., tumors, dementia), injury (e.g., traumatic brain injury), or the influence of chemical agents (e.g., chronic alcohol abuse, illicit drug use), all of which can alter behavior and potentially increase aggression or criminality.
Behavioral interactions: Criminal or aggressive behavior often results from complex interactions between the rational prefrontal cortex and the emotional limbic system (involved in processing emotions like fear and aggression). Imbalances or dysfunctions here can impair emotional regulation.
Chronic violent behavior: Can be exacerbated by a combination of factors:
Trauma to the brain: Physical injuries to the head, particularly to the prefrontal cortex.
Violence at home: Exposure to domestic violence or child abuse can alter brain development and emotional responses.
Psychological disorders: Underlying mental health conditions that affect emotional stability and judgment.
Neurobiological Factors of Brain Function 2:
Neurotransmitters: These are chemical messengers secreted by neurons, crucial for facilitating the transmission of information across synapses between neurons. They play a vital role in mood, behavior, and cognitive processes.
Low levels of serotonin: A key neurotransmitter regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and impulse control. Abnormally low levels have been consistently linked to various mental disorders, including depression and anxiety, as well as increased aggression, impulsivity, and violent behavior.
Hormones: Endocrine system chemicals that circulate in the bloodstream and influence behavior.
Testosterone: This androgen hormone is associated with aggressive tendencies, competitiveness, and dominance in both males and females, though the link to criminal violence is complex and not solely deterministic.
Cortisol: A stress hormone. Intriguingly, extremely violent individuals, particularly those exhibiting psychopathic traits or chronic antisocial behavior, may have abnormally low levels of cortisol, suggesting a blunted stress response and a diminished fear of punishment.
Genetic Factors: The Inheritance of Criminal Tendencies
Basic unit of heredity: The gene is a segment of DNA that contains coded instructions contributing to biological and behavioral traits passed down from parents to offspring.
Criminal behavior in families: Research indicates that criminal behavior tends to run in families, suggesting a genetic predisposition. However, environmental factors such as shared family upbringing, socio-economic status, and exposure to crime within the household also play a significant, intertwined role in the expression of these tendencies.
Twin studies: These studies provide strong evidence for a genetic influence on criminal behavior by comparing concordance rates (the probability that if one twin has a trait, the other will also have it) between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins.
Identical twins:
When one identical twin exhibits criminal behavior, the co-twin is significantly more likely to also be criminal compared to fraternal twins. This higher concordance rate in identical twins, who share 100% of their genes, versus fraternal twins (who share about 50% of their genes), highlights the potential genetic component.
This co-occurrence of criminal behavior is observed more frequently and with greater statistical significance in identical twins than in fraternal twins or other siblings, even when controlling for shared environmental factors.
Psychological Factors: Mental Disorders and Criminal Behavior
Mental disorder: A diagnosable medical condition that significantly interferes with an individual's cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning, thereby impacting their ability to cope with daily life demands and maintain relationships.
Psychoses: These are a group of serious mental disorders characterized by a profound disconnect from reality, often involving hallucinations (sensory experiences without external stimuli) and delusions (fixed, false beliefs). Psychotic disorders can severely reduce an individual's ability to reason, make sound judgments, and cope with daily demands, sometimes increasing the risk of violent or criminal behavior under specific circumstances.
Susceptibility to criminal behavior: While most individuals with mental disorders are not violent, certain severe mental disorders, particularly untreated psychoses, can increase an individual's susceptibility to engaging in criminal or violent behavior, especially if accompanied by substance abuse or paranoid delusions.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
DSM: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (currently DSM-5-TR) is the widely accepted standard classification reference used by mental health professionals in the United States and internationally. It provides standardized criteria for the diagnosis of mental disorders, aiding in consistent clinical assessment, research, and treatment planning.
Categories of serious mental disorders commonly discussed in relation to criminal behavior include:
Schizophrenia spectrum disorders: A group of severe, chronic mental disorders affecting thought processes, perceptions, and behavior.
Paranoid disorders: Characterized by prominent delusions, often of persecution or conspiracy, leading to extreme distrust and hostility.
Severe mood disorders: Conditions marked by extreme and prolonged disturbances in emotional state, such as major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder.
Serious Mental Disorders (Detailed)
Schizophrenia spectrum disorders:
These are characterized by a profound disconnection from reality, manifested through symptoms like hallucinations (e.g., hearing voices), delusions (e.g., believing they are being spied on), disorganized thinking and speech, and profound cognitive aberrations (e.g., difficulty concentrating, memory problems). These symptoms can significantly impair social and occupational functioning and, in rare instances when delusions involve threats, may contribute to violent behavior.
Major mood disorders:
Encompass conditions like major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, which involve extreme and prolonged emotional states (either profound sadness or intense elation). These disorders cause significant impairment in coping with daily life, decision-making, and maintaining stable relationships.
Bipolar disorder:
A chronic mental health condition characterized by dramatic shifts in mood, energy, and activity levels. Individuals experience alternating periods of severe depression (low mood, loss of interest, lethargy) and episodes of mania or hypomania (excessive elation, inflated self-importance, racing thoughts, reduced need for sleep, impulsivity). During manic phases, impaired judgment can increase risky behaviors, including criminal acts.
Postpartum psychosis:
A rare but severe mental illness that can develop in women after childbirth. It is characterized by rapid onset of symptoms including hallucinations, delusions (often focused on the baby), severe confusion, disorganized thinking, and obsessive thoughts about the baby, sometimes with commands to harm the infant. It constitutes a psychiatric emergency requiring immediate treatment.
Psychological Factors: Psychopathy and PTSD
Psychopathy:
A severe personality disorder characterized by a lifelong pattern of antisocial behavior, a profound lack of empathy, guilt, or remorse, and often a superficial charm used for manipulation. Psychopaths are typically manipulative, deceitful, highly superficial in their emotions, and profoundly self-centered. They struggle to form meaningful attachments and disregard societal norms and the rights of others. Criminal psychopaths are a particularly dangerous subset of offenders, committing a disproportionate amount of violent and persistent crime and often recidivating at high rates.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
A mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event. Symptoms can include flashbacks, nightmares, severe anxiety, and uncontrollable thoughts about the event. In some cases, individuals suffering from severe, untreated PTSD, particularly when compounded by other factors like substance abuse or an acute dissociative state, have perpetrated serious crimes, often linked to hypervigilance or perceived threats.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Sufferer (Example)
Example image caption: Some people with PTSD experience symptoms that, in conjunction with other factors, can lead to the perpetration of serious crimes.
Psychological Factors: Intelligence and Morality—The Cognitive Brain
Intelligence: Defined as the capacity to learn or comprehend new information, the ability to solve complex problems, and the faculty to adapt effectively to life’s diverse experiences. While a direct causal link between low intelligence and criminal behavior is complex and debated, some studies suggest a correlation, possibly mediated by factors like school failure, impulsivity, or difficulty understanding long-term consequences.
Relationship between intelligence and criminal behavior: This relationship is complex and multifaceted. Early theories sometimes linked low IQ directly to crime, but modern understanding recognizes that social, economic, and educational factors often mediate any observed correlations. For instance, individuals with lower cognitive abilities might be more susceptible to negative influences or have fewer legitimate opportunities.
Emotional intelligence: This refers to the ability to identify, understand, and manage one's own emotions, as well as to recognize and influence the emotions of others. While typically associated with positive social interactions, a twisted form of emotional intelligence (e.g., understanding emotions to exploit them) can be observed in some individuals who commit crimes.
Psychopaths and serial killers often exemplify a lack of genuine emotional intelligence in terms of empathy and moral understanding, despite sometimes possessing a superficial ability to read and manipulate others' emotions to their advantage.
Moral Reasoning and Prefrontal Cortex
Moral reasoning: This involves the application of ethical principles, values, and judgments about what constitutes good versus bad behavior within a given society or personal code. It's the process by which individuals determine the moral rightness or wrongness of an action.
Criminals' moral reasoning: Many habitual criminals often exhibit immature or underdeveloped moral reasoning compared to their non-offending peers. They may operate at lower stages of moral development, focusing narrowly on personal consequences or immediate gratification rather than universal ethical principles or the impact on others.
Damage to the prefrontal cortex: This specific brain region is critical for moral judgment, decision-making, planning, and inhibiting inappropriate behavior. Damage to the prefrontal cortex (due to injury, disease, or developmental issues) can lead to profound personality changes, including reckless, impulsive, antisocial, and violent behavior, often coupled with a striking lack of remorse or guilt for their actions.
Social Learning Theory and Psychodynamic Factors
Social learning theory: This theory, popularized by Albert Bandura, proposes that behavior is acquired, maintained, or extinguished through observational learning (modeling), imitation, and direct reinforcement or punishment. Individuals learn not only from direct experience but also by observing the behaviors of others and the consequences they face.
Exposure to violence: Extensive exposure to violence, whether in the home, community, or through media (e.g., violent video games, movies, television), can significantly influence the learning and normalization of violent behavior in children and adolescents, leading to imitation of aggressive patterns and desensitization to suffering.
Psychodynamic factors: This perspective, largely stemming from Freudian theory, posits that personality and behavioral traits, including those leading to criminality, develop early in life. Unresolved conflicts, repressed memories, and early childhood experiences are believed to shape an individual's psychological makeup and predispositions.
Freud’s Structural Model of Personality
Id: Represents the unconscious, instinctual drives and urges for immediate gratification (e.g., hunger, sex, aggression). It operates on the 'pleasure principle,' seeking instant satisfaction without regard for reality or consequences.
Ego: The conscious, rational part of the personality that deals with objective reality. It operates on the 'reality principle,' mediating between the demanding id and the moralistic superego, striving to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially acceptable ways.
Superego: The moral conscience of the personality, internalizing societal norms and parental teachings. It judges actions based on internal standards of right and wrong, striving for perfection and punishing misbehavior with guilt or shame.
Sociological Factors
Sociological factors: These relate crime to an individual's social environment and the broader societal structures within which they exist. They suggest that external social conditions significantly influence criminal behavior. These factors include:
Income: Economic inequality and poverty can foster crime due to limited legitimate opportunities, leading to strain and a greater incentive for illicit activities.
Racism: Systemic racism and racial discrimination can lead to disadvantage, marginalization, and perceptions of injustice, contributing to social unrest and crime rates in affected communities.
Sexism: Gender inequality and patriarchal structures can influence types of crime committed by both men and women, often impacting women as victims and sometimes perpetrating crime in response to oppression.
Capitalism: Critical theories argue that the inherent inequalities and competitive pressures of capitalist systems can generate conflict and crime, particularly among the economically marginalized.
Education: Lack of access to quality education or high rates of school failure can limit legitimate life chances, increasing the likelihood of involvement in criminal activity.
Religion: While often a prosocial factor, certain religious conflicts or extremist ideologies can, in rare instances, be linked to specific forms of collective or individual crimes.
Ethnicity: Like race, ethnic discrimination and cultural clashes can contribute to social disorganization and elevated crime rates in certain marginalized ethnic communities.
Strain and Anomie
Strain theory: This theory, notably advanced by Robert Merton, posits that extraordinary pressures and the inability to achieve culturally valued goals through legitimate means make crime more likely. The sources of this strain can originate from individuals (e.g., failure to achieve aspirations), groups (e.g., collective disadvantage), and social institutions (e.g., unequal access to education or employment).
Anomie: A core concept in strain theory, anomie describes a state of normlessness, a feeling of alienation, hopelessness, and breakdown of social bonds that occurs when individuals or groups perceive a discrepancy between societal goals (e.g., wealth, success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them. This strain and subsequent anomie can lead to criminal behavior as individuals resort to illegitimate means.
Socio-economic impact: The inability to achieve desired life goals, particularly among lower socioeconomic classes due to systemic lack of opportunities and resources (e.g., quality education, good jobs), significantly contributes to higher crime rates. This pressure can compel individuals to join gangs or engage in other illicit activities to achieve perceived success or status.
The Life Course Delinquency Perspective
Juvenile delinquency: Refers to illegal acts committed by minors (individuals typically under the age of 18) that would be considered crimes if committed by adults, or status offenses that are prohibited only for minors.
Delinquency trends: This perspective emphasizes that delinquent behavior follows identifiable developmental trends from birth to old age, influenced by a dynamic interplay of individual, family, peer, school, and community factors over time.
Dual taxonomic theory: Developed by Terrie Moffitt, this theory proposes two distinct types of offenders: life-course persistent and adolescence-limited. It combines biological and psychological elements (e.g., neuropsychological deficits) with social and environmental factors (e.g., inadequate parenting, deviant peer groups).
Life course persistent offenders: These individuals begin exhibiting antisocial behavior very early in life (e.g., biting, bullying, stealing as children) and continue their criminal patterns throughout adolescence and into adulthood. They are often characterized by underlying neuropsychological deficits and cumulative disadvantages.
Adolescence-limited offenders: In contrast, these individuals engage in antisocial behavior primarily during their adolescent years, often in response to a 'maturity gap' (the desire for adult privileges without adult responsibilities) and peer influence. They typically do not have a history of serious childhood conduct problems and generally maintain school performance and respectful relationships with parents and teachers, desisting from crime as they transition into adulthood.
Race, Class, and Gender: Interrupting Gun Violence
This section typically involves a discussion, often visual, on the intersectionality of race, socioeconomic class, and gender in understanding and addressing gun violence. It explores how systemic inequalities and social stratification contribute to the prevalence and patterns of gun-related crimes and victimizations, particularly in marginalized communities.
Social Bonds and Crime: Social Control Factors
Social control theory: This sociological perspective focuses on the belief systems and internalized norms that bind individuals to societal standards, thus preventing deviance and crime. It posits that crime occurs when an individual's bonds to society are weakened or broken. Control is exerted both internally (self-control) and externally (via family, school, community, and law enforcement).
Deviance in communities: Deviance and crime tend to be rarer in smaller, tightly knit communities where social bonds are strong, informal social controls are prevalent, and conformity is reinforced through close relationshipsw. In larger, more anonymous communities, social bonds may be weaker, leading to greater anonymity and reduced informal social control, potentially increasing crime rates.
Neutralization theory: Developed by Sykes and Matza, this theory suggests that individuals who engage in criminal acts often rationalize their behavior through specific techniques (e.g., denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of the victim, condemnation of the condemners, appeal to higher loyalties) to temporarily neutralize or suspend their moral obligations and overcome feelings of responsibility or guilt before/during the act.
Personal bonds: The strength and nature of an individual's personal bonds to society (family, peers, school, work) significantly influence their likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. Strong bonds act as a deterrent, while weak or broken bonds increase susceptibility to crime.
Personal Bonds to Society
Containment theory: This theory, proposed by Walter Reckless, suggests that both internal and external forces help contain individuals from committing crime. Inner containment includes self-concept (a positive self-image), self-control (the ability to resist impulses), goal-directedness, a strong conscience, frustration tolerance, responsibility, aspirational realism (realistic goals), and identification with lawful norms. Outer containment involves strong social supports and supervision.
Social bond theory: Travis Hirschi's influential theory identifies four key facets of social bonds with society that, when strong, reduce the likelihood of criminal behavior:
Attachment: The emotional ties and affection one has for conventional others (parents, teachers, friends).
Commitment: The investment of time, energy, and effort in conventional lines of action (e.g., educational pursuits, career aspirations).
Involvement: Participation in conventional activities (e.g., sports, clubs, community service), which leaves less time for deviant behavior.
Belief: The acceptance and adherence to the moral validity of society's rules and laws.
Impact of social bonds: The presence of multiple, strong social bonds to conventional institutions and individuals significantly reduces the likelihood of an individual engaging in criminal activities, as they have more to lose and are more integrated into normative society.
Self-control: A key internal mechanism that restricts criminal behavior. Individuals with high self-control are better able to delay gratification, consider long-term consequences, and resist impulsive actions, whereas low self-control is strongly correlated with increased criminal propensity.
Self-esteem: The overall sense of personal worth or value. While the relationship is complex, low self-esteem is sometimes theorized to contribute to delinquency as individuals seek external validation or react aggressively to perceived threats. Conversely, for some individuals, delinquent acts (e.g., engaging in daring behaviors, gaining peer approval in deviant groups) may temporarily boost a fragile self-esteem.
Inequality and Crime: Power and Social Conflict Theory
Social conflict theory: This broad sociological perspective views crime as a product of fundamental conflicts of interest and power struggles within society, particularly between the wealthy and powerful ruling class and the poor and powerless subordinate classes. It argues that laws are created and enforced to protect the interests of the dominant group.
Critical theory: An umbrella term encompassing various perspectives that critically analyze the structural conditions and social inequalities (e.g., class, race, gender disparities) within society, arguing that these factors are deeply influential in shaping crime patterns, the definition of crime, and the operations of the criminal justice system. It often challenges dominant power structures.
Feminist criminology: Applies feminist theoretical frameworks and critiques to the study of crime, highlighting how economic, political, and social conditions, particularly those rooted in patriarchy and gender inequality, affect women both as offenders and, more frequently, as victims of crime. It also critiques gender biases in criminal justice practices.
Peacemaking criminology: An alternative perspective that views crime as a form of suffering and violence (both physical and structural) and advocates for nonviolent, restorative, and peaceful approaches to crime and justice. It emphasizes reconciliation, compassion, and community-based solutions over punitive measures.
Sociological Factors: Cultural Deviance and Social Disorganization
Cultural deviance theory: This theory posits that social traditions, values, and norms of various subcultures within a larger society can influence and guide behavior, sometimes leading to conflict with the dominant culture's legal codes. Crime is seen as conformity to the norms of a deviant subculture.
Social disorganization theory: Developed by researchers at the Chicago School, this theory argues that crime primarily results from the failure of social institutions and organizations (e.g., family, schools, police, churches, welfare services) within a neighborhood to effectively meet community needs, maintain social control, and transmit conventional values. Disorganized communities lack the collective efficacy to prevent crime.
Migration to Chicago: In the early 20th century, rapid migration to Chicago by rural residents from the American South and various immigrant groups led to significant social disorganization in certain urban areas. This influx resulted in a breakdown of traditional social structures, weakened community ties, and an inability of institutions to integrate new populations, contributing to higher crime rates in these 'transition zones.'
Cultural Deviance Factors: Subcultures and Crime
Subculture: A distinguishable group within a broader society that shares a distinct set of norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors that differ from, or even oppose, those of the dominant culture. Subcultures can form around shared interests, experiences, or social status.
Culture conflict: Occurs when the norms, values, and behavioral expectations of one cultural or subcultural group come into direct opposition or clash with those of another group, particularly the dominant one. Crime may emerge from such conflict when individuals adhere to their subcultural norms that are deemed illegal by the dominant legal system, though not all cultural conflicts lead to criminal behavior.
Sociological Factors: Social Process Factors
Social process theory: This broad perspective explains the developmental stages and processes that lead individuals into delinquency and criminal behavior. It emphasizes the importance of social interaction, socialization (learning from others), imitation, reinforcement, role-modeling, and the reactions of others in shaping an individual's propensity for crime.
Key concepts:
Looking-glass self: A concept by Charles Horton Cooley, it describes the process by which an individual's self-definition and identity are shaped by how they perceive others perceive them. If a person is consistently perceived and treated as deviant, they may internalize that label.
Labeling theory: This theory explains the path to criminality not by initial deviant acts (primary deviance) but by the societal and institutional reactions to those acts (labeling, stigmatization), which can lead to a reinforced deviant identity and escalating criminal behavior (secondary deviance).
Tagging: Refers to the progressive process of being identified, arrested, officially labeled, and processed through the criminal justice system. This process of being 'tagged' as a criminal can profoundly impact an individual's self-concept and opportunities.
Differential association theory: Developed by Edwin Sutherland, this theory posits that criminal behavior is primarily learned through normal social interactions with intimate personal groups (e.g., family, friends). The learning encompasses techniques of committing crime, motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. It emphasizes that learning can reinforce both criminal and law-abiding behavior depending on the content of associations.
Figure 3.2: A “Factors” Approach to Explaining Criminal Behavior
Integrated model: This figure illustrates an integrated framework for explaining criminal behavior, combining sociological and biological factors. It typically depicts a large circle representing dominant middle-class values, a medium circle representing working-class subculture or gang values (which may develop in response to strain from middle-class values), and a smaller circle representing biological factors (e.g., low serotonin levels, genetic predispositions). This diagram suggests that these factors interact; for example, working-class youth may experience strain from being seen as “nobodies” by the dominant middle class, and more impulsive individuals (influenced by biological factors like low serotonin levels) might be more inclined to form or join their own subculture or gang with its alternative rules and norms, leading to delinquency. The model highlights how biological predispositions can make one more susceptible to external social influences.
Victimization Factors
Victimology: This is the scientific study of victims of crime. It focuses on understanding the patterns of victimization, the characteristics of victims, the consequences of victimization, and the role victims may inadvertently play in crime causation (not to be confused with victim-blaming).
Risk of becoming a victim: Offenders often target individuals with specific attributes that make them perceived as easy prey, such as physical frailty, social isolation, or perceived wealth. The risk of victimization is not random but can be predicted by various factors.
Vulnerability factors: These attributes can be behavioral (e.g., risky lifestyles, walking alone at night), physical (e.g., visible disabilities, age), social (e.g., belonging to a marginalized group, lack of social support), or attitudinal (e.g., perceived passivity, friendliness towards strangers). Higher vulnerability increases the likelihood of becoming a victim.
Recidivist victims: These are individuals who are victimized repeatedly over time. This can be due to high levels of both obtrusive vulnerabilities (easily visible traits, like physical weakness) and unobtrusive vulnerabilities (less obvious traits, like persistent risky behaviors or social marginalization), which make them consistently attractive targets for offenders.
Routine activities theory: This theory, proposed by Cohen and Felson, explains victimization as a consequence of daily routines and activities. It posits that a criminal event occurs when three elements converge in time and space:
A motivated offender (someone willing and able to commit a crime).
A suitable target (a person or object of value that is vulnerable).
The absence of a capable guardian (e.g., police, security, alert citizens, effective surveillance) to prevent the crime.
Victim Behavior and Typology
Victim behavior: The actions, reactions, or inactions of a victim during the commission of a crime can significantly affect the crime's outcome, including whether the crime is completed, the level of injury sustained, or the success of self-defense.
Mendelsohn’s typology of crime victims: Benjamin Mendelsohn, a pioneer in victimology, developed an early classification system that categorizes victims based on their perceived degree of contributory culpability or responsibility for their own victimization. His typology was groundbreaking but has been criticized for its victim-blaming implications.
Typology: A logical classification system used to categorize different types of victims. In victimology, typologies often emphasize the victim’s role, whether active or passive, in influencing the crime’s outcome or their own vulnerability.
Key terms in victim typologies often include: victim, completely innocent victim (no fault), ignorant victim (minor culpability), culpable victim (some responsibility), guilty victim (solely responsible), etc. These terms reflect varying degrees of perceived involvement in the crime.
Mendelsohn’s Early Victim-Blaming Typology (Illustrative Categories)
Illustrative Categories (with context): Mendelsohn's typology included categories such as the completely innocent victim (e.g., a child, an unconscious person, having no discernible role in precipitating the crime), the ignorant victim with minor culpability (e.g., someone who carelessly leaves valuables visible), a woman inducing miscarriage who dies (classified as more culpable), the victim as guilty as the offender (e.g., mutual combatants), the suicidal victim (contributing to their own demise), and the aggressor as victim (someone who initiates an attack but then becomes the victim, e.g., in self-defense scenarios). He also included special categories like paranoid/hysterical/senile/child victims, recognizing their inherent vulnerabilities. It is important to note that this typology, while historically significant, is often seen as controversial today due to its potential for 'victim-blaming,' which shifts responsibility from the offender to the victim.
Note: Source references Mendelsohn (1956) and Schafer (1968), highlighting the historical context of these ideas.
Key Terms 1
Adolescence-limited offenders
Anomie
Atavism
Classical school of criminology
Containment theory
Critical theory
Cultural deviance theory
Culture conflict
D S M (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
Differential association theory
Feminist criminology
Intelligence
Looking-glass self
Moral reasoning
Neoclassical school of criminology
Neurotransmitter
Neutralization theory
Peacemaking criminology
Positivist school of criminology
Postpartum psychosis
Psychopathy
Psychoses
Key Terms 2
Rational choice theory
Recidivist victims
Routine activities theory
Schizophrenia
Social bond theory
Social conflict theory
Social control theory
Social disorganization theory
Social learning theory
Social process theory
Strain theory
Subculture
Victimology
Figures and Models (Text Alternatives)
Figure 3.1: Concentric Zone Model (descriptive alt text): This model, central to social disorganization theory, depicts urban development spreading outward from a central business district (CBD) in five concentric circles. Each zone is characterized by distinct social and economic conditions. The model notes that crime and other social problems tend to concentrate most heavily in the 'transition zone' (the area immediately surrounding the CBD), which is characterized by high residential mobility, poverty, and ethnic heterogeneity, leading to weakened social controls and institutions. The layers are typically labeled: 1. CBD, 2. Transition Zone (highest crime), 3. Blue-Collar Residential, 4. Middle-Income Residential, 5. Commuter Residential.
Figure 3.2: A “Factors” Approach to Explaining Criminal Behavior (Text Alt): This diagram illustrates an integrated sociological and biological framework for understanding delinquency. It describes a large circle representing the influence of dominant middle-class values in society, which can create strain for individuals unable to achieve these values. A medium circle represents the formation of working-class subcultures or gangs, which may emerge as a response to this strain, developing their own distinct values and norms that might conflict with the dominant culture. A small circle represents biological factors, such as low serotonin levels or other genetic predispositions, which can influence individual impulsivity and susceptibility to deviant influences. The diagram suggests that these factors are interconnected; for instance, individuals with biological predispositions for impulsivity might be more inclined to join subcultures as a means to express their frustrations or achieve status, especially when living in environments characterized by social disorganization and strain.
Poverty Outlaw (Video Discussion Prompt)
The slide invites analysis and critical thinking based on a video titled “Poverty Outlaw” (YouTube video link provided). The discussion prompts are designed to encourage students to link the economic situation depicted in the video to theoretical causes of crime (e.g., strain theory, social conflict theory), analyze how social inequality contributes to criminal behavior, and critically evaluate whether the individuals portrayed in the video should be considered 'criminals' in a broader societal context.
Note on Learning Objectives (from Transcript)
Appreciate the complex and intertwined roles of biological (including genetic predispositions) and environmental factors on brain function and their impact on criminal behavior.
Explain the key aspects of various mental disorders, their symptomatology, and how they are systematically classified using diagnostic tools like the DSM.
Recognize the cognitive factors of intelligence and moral reasoning as crucial brain functions and understand how their variations or impairments can influence an individual's propensity for criminal behavior.
Comprehend how systemic economic, class, and social inequalities are deeply rooted in, and directly linked to, the causes and patterns of crime within society.
Describe the various individual, social, and situational factors that contribute to some people becoming victims of crime, including concepts from victimology and routine activities theory.