Comprehensive Psychology Study Guide: Research, Biology, Cognition, and Clinical Disorders
Research and Statistical Methods
Positive correlation: This statistical relationship occurs when two variables increase together in the same direction.
Negative correlation: This relationship is characterized by an inverse movement where one variable increases while the other variable decreases.
Central tendency: Refers to the average patterns found within a dataset. This includes the three primary measures:
Mean: The arithmetic average.
Median: The middle score in a distribution.
Mode: The most frequently occurring score.
Variation: A measure of how spread out or dispersed the data points are within a set.
Percentile rank: This represents the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a specific given score.
Normal curve: A bell-shaped distribution pattern where the majority of scores cluster near the middle of the range.
Positive skew: A distribution where the tail stretches toward the right side of the graph because it is pulled by a few exceptionally high scores.
Negative skew: A distribution where the tail stretches toward the left side of the graph because it is pulled by a few exceptionally low scores.
Regression toward the mean: The statistical phenomenon where extreme or unusual scores tend to move closer toward the average upon subsequent measurements over time.
Convenience sampling: A non-probability sampling method where participants are chosen specifically because they are easy to access or reach for the researcher.
Qualitative data: Descriptive, non-numerical data that relies on words or observations instead of numbers to convey information.
Quantitative data: Numerical data that consists of information that can be counted, measured, or expressed using numbers.
Structured interviews: A type of interview format where the researcher uses a specific set of predetermined questions that are asked to every participant in the same order.
Effect size: A statistical concept that demonstrates the strength or magnitude of a specific result or the relationship between variables.
Directionality problem: A challenge in correlational research where it is unknown which of two variables caused the change in the other.
Third variable problem: A situation in research where an outside, unaccounted-for factor may be the actual cause behind the relationship observed between two other variables.
Developmental Psychology
Maturation: The process of natural biological growth and development that occurs over time, independent of external experience.
Reversibility: The cognitive understanding that certain actions or processes can be mentally undone or reversed to their original state.
Systematic thinking: A logical approach to problem-solving that follows a step-by-step, organized process.
Occupational identity: One's sense of self and purpose derived specifically from their career, work-related goals, and professional aspirations.
Familial identity: One's sense of self that is rooted in their role within the family structure.
Possible selves: Cognitive representations or ideas about who an individual might become, who they would like to become, or who they are afraid of becoming in the future.
Biological Bases of Behavior
Reflex arc: An automatic, involuntary response pathway that processes information through the spinal cord rather than the brain for immediate reaction.
Depolarization: The process during an action potential where a neuron becomes positively charged, leading it to fire an electrical impulse.
Higher-order thinking: Complex cognitive processes that involve advanced reasoning, planning, and judgment.
Lesioning: A research technique involving the purposeful damaging of a specific part of the brain to observe and study the resulting changes in function.
Sensation and Perception
Synesthesia: A neurological condition where the stimulation of one sensory pathway triggers an involuntary experience in a second sensory pathway (e.g., "hearing" colors).
Ganglion cells: Specialized cells in the retina of the eye that receive visual information from photoreceptors and transmit that data to the brain.
Dichromatism: A form of color blindness resulting from the absence of one of the three types of cone cells in the eye.
Monochromatism: A rare condition where an individual sees only in shades of black, white, and gray, missing all color perception.
Apparent movement: A perceptual illusion where still images presented in rapid succession create the appearance of motion.
Sleep and Consciousness
Restoration of resources theory: A theory suggesting that the primary function of sleep is to restore and replenish the resources of the brain and body that were depleted during waking hours.
Consolidation theory (dreams): The psychological theory that the purpose of dreaming is to help organize and strengthen memories.
Memory consolidation: The neurological process involved in converting short-term memories into stable, long-term storage.
Learning Theories
Higher-order conditioning: A classical conditioning process where a previously learned conditioned stimulus is used to create a new conditioned response to a different, neutral stimulus.
Law of effect: A principle of learning stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences (rewards) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Cognitive map: A mental representation or internal "picture" of the layout of one's physical environment.
Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
Yerkes-Dodson law: This law posits that performance is related to arousal in an inverted U-shape.
Cognitive appraisal: The psychological process of interpreting and evaluating a situation or stimulus before reacting to it emotionally.
Cognition and Memory
Central executive: The component of working memory that directs attention, coordinates information, and manages the activities of the other subsystems.
Multi-store model: A model of memory describing the flow of information through three distinct stages:
Forgetting curve: A graph demonstrating that the ability to recall information fades rapidly over time if there is no conscious attempt to review or relearn it.
State-dependent memory: The phenomenon where information is more easily recalled when the individual is in the same internal state or mood as they were when the information was originally learned.
Construct validity: A measure of how effectively a test or tool actually measures the theoretical concept or trait it claims to be measuring.
Predictive validity: A measure of how well a particular test can accurately predict future performance or outcomes.
Phonemes: The absolute smallest units of sound in a spoken language.
Semantics: The study of meaning in words, signs, and language structures.
Social Psychology
Group polarization: The tendency for a group's existing opinions or attitudes to become more extreme and strengthened following a group discussion.
Groupthink: A psychological phenomenon where the individual desire for harmony and conformity within a group results in irrational or poor decision-making.
False consensus effect: The cognitive bias where an individual overestimates the extent to which others share their beliefs, opinions, and behaviors.
Psychological Disorders and Treatment
Eclectic approach: A therapeutic strategy that involves combining various techniques and perspectives from multiple types of therapy to treat a patient.
Cluster A disorders: A group of personality disorders characterized by behaviors that are perceived as odd or eccentric.
Paranoid personality disorder: Marked by extreme, pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of others.
Schizoid personality disorder: Characterized by a consistent lack of interest in social relationships and a limited range of emotional expression.
Schizotypal personality disorder: Involves oddities in thinking, appearance, and behavior, often accompanied by intense social anxiety.
Cluster B disorders: A group of personality disorders characterized by behaviors that are dramatic, emotional, or erratic.
Antisocial personality disorder: A pattern of disregarding the rights of others, often characterized by a lack of remorse or empathy.
Histrionic personality disorder: A condition involving excessive emotionality and a constant, pervasive need for attention.
Narcissistic personality disorder: Characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance and a deep need for constant admiration.
Borderline personality disorder: Marked by severe instability in emotions, self-image, and interpersonal relationships.
Cluster C disorders: A group of personality disorders characterized by behaviors that are anxious or fearful.
Avoidant personality disorder: Characterized by extreme social inhibition and the avoidance of relationships due to an intense fear of rejection or criticism.
Dependent personality disorder: Involves an excessive, pervasive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behavior.
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: A disorder characterized by extreme perfectionism, a need for control, and rigid adherence to rules.
Hostility: A mindset or attitude characterized by persistent anger and aggressive behavior.
Cognitive triad: A diagnostic pattern in depression consisting of a negative view of the following three elements:
The self.
The world.
The future.
Tardive dyskinesia: A condition involving involuntary, repetitive body movements (such as grimacing or eye blinking) caused by the long-term use of certain antipsychotic medications.