9:2 Bilingualism

Discuss differences in executive control between monolinguals and bilinguals.
Discuss structural brain differences between monolinguals and bilinguals.
Discuss cognitive reserve and the factors that confer it.
Discuss the issues involving children with developmental language disorders growing up in bilingual households.

Disadvantages in Language Processing:
- Bilinguals experience disadvantages in language processing that are measurable in laboratory settings. This often appears as an insignificant negative impact on everyday life.
Cognitive Advantages:
- Despite some processing disadvantages, bilinguals exhibit considerable positive impacts on cognitive functioning that enhance everyday life. -
Metalinguistic Awareness:
- A deeper understanding of how language works, which enables more effective communication skills.
- Creativity and Problem-Solving:
- Bilinguals show advantages in tasks requiring symbolic flexibility and concept formation, such as learning arbitrary names for objects.

Bilinguals must constantly monitor and control their languages, leading to enhanced benefits in nonverbal cognition.
Multitasking Capability:
- Bilinguals outperform monolinguals in multitasking, demonstrating the ability to switch attention quickly between tasks.
Mechanisms Used:
- Bilinguals utilize general-purpose mechanisms to switch and monitor both languages effectively.

Definition:
- The management of cognitive resources to perform tasks efficiently.
Components of Executive Control:
- Interference inhibition: Ability to ignore distracting or misleading information. - Selective Attention: Ability to direct and focus attention on the current task. - Mental Flexibility: Ability to rapidly switch from one cognitive task to another.

Description of the Task:
- Involves participants responding to the direction of a central arrow, regardless of the direction of surrounding arrows.
Findings:
- Bilinguals exhibit greater executive control than age-matched monolinguals. - Monolinguals demonstrate low executive control in childhood, peaking in young adulthood but declining in later adulthood. - In contrast, bilinguals develop executive control early in childhood and maintain higher levels throughout their lifespan.
Bilingual Advantage:
- Children and older adults who are bilingual show a bilingual advantage in executive control. - Young adult bilinguals perform comparably to monolinguals.

Structural Differences:
- Bilingualism induces structural changes in the brain rather than being merely a choice. - Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex:
- This area is involved in executive control and shows greater activation in bilinguals during executive control tasks.
- Heschl’s Gyrus:
- Located deep in the lateral fissure, this auditory cortex structure is larger in lifelong bilinguals.

Definition:
- Engaging in stimulating mental or physical activities regularly helps maintain cognitive functioning as we age and offers protection against dementia.
Contributing Factors:
- Degree of formal education, occupational status, socioeconomic status, regular physical exercise, engaging in stimulating leisure activities, and social engagement. - Lifelong bilingualism has been found to confer a cognitive advantage, as even bilinguals who develop dementia do so an average of 4 years later than their monolingual counterparts.

Relevance of Specific Language Impairment (SLI) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):
- Both conditions lead to developmental delays in language and cognition. - No significant developmental differences exist between bilingual and monolingual children affected by these disorders.
Concerns Over Language Learning:
- Fears that learning two languages would be detrimental are unfounded. - An English-only policy in bilingual households can be problematic, affecting family communication and the child's integration into their immigrant community, potentially leading to social isolation.
Bilingual Advantages for Children:
- The bilingual advantage in executive control may positively impact children with developmental disorders.

Discuss the factors influencing ultimate attainment in a second language.
Compare and contrast the critical period hypothesis with the speech learning model.
Describe the various types of bilingual home environments and their typical outcomes.
Discuss the two approaches to bilingual education.

Definition:
- Refers to the endpoint of second language acquisition, which typically falls short of full mastery.
Key Factors:
- Age of Arrival (AOA): Time when the learner received initial intensive exposure to L2 in a country where it is spoken. - Length of Residence (LOR): Number of years the learner has lived in the country speaking L2.
Age-Related Outcomes:
- Before puberty: AOA and LOR are good predictors of ultimate attainment. - After puberty: Achieving native speaker mastery becomes virtually impossible for most learners.

Definition:
- Suggests that children have a biological predisposition to learn languages, with this ability diminishing around puberty.
Cerebral Plasticity:
- Ability of the brain to modify its structure in response to new experiences, relevant during early language acquisition.
Sensitive Period:
- A time early in life when language learning is more likely to succeed, although motivational factors may outweigh cerebral plasticity in importance.

Overview:
- No maturational constraints on language learning exist, although foreign accents and subtle grammar difficulties can arise from an imbalance between time spent using L1 vs. L2.
Accents and Mastery:
- Late bilinguals may have L1 deeply entrenched, influencing their pronunciation and grammar in L2. - Well-assimilated immigrants may lose contact with their heritage culture, and their L2 may approach native speaker mastery while maintaining foreign-accented L1.
Factors in Language Learning:
- The self-concept defined by language may play an important role in achieving ultimate attainment.

One-Parent-One-Language Approach:
- One parent speaks L1 while the other speaks L2, but children may not fully develop L2 without external support.
One-Language-at-Home/One-Language-Outside Approach:
- Heritage language at home, societal language outside, more likely to encourage balanced bilingualism.
Mixed Approach:
- Both parents speak both languages (using codeswitching), which is not confusing for children but may risk the development of the heritage language without external support.
First Language Attrition:
- Occurs when bilinguals favor L2, and L1 ability diminishes, as seen in international adoption scenarios.

English Language Learners (ELLs):
- Children entering school whose native language is not English; there are over 5 million ELLs in the U.S., hailing from over 350 heritage backgrounds.
Transitional Program:
- Designed to assimilate heritage language students into mainstream language and culture, beginning with instruction mostly in L1 and gradually transitioning to L2 over a period of 5-7 years.
Consequences:
- L1 attrition can lead to behavioral and emotional issues due to isolation from their heritage community.
Two-Way Immersion Program:
- Aims to develop fully bilingual and biliterate students, starting mostly in L1, then transitioning to a 50-50 balance between L1 and L2, facilitating better academic performance, higher self-esteem, and fewer behavioral problems.