English Colonial Policies, Revolutions, and Wars: $$17^{th}$$ to Mid-$$18^{th}$$ Century

English Colonial Trade and Control

• New England Exports: Primarily went to the West Indies ($2/3$ of all exports), with only $18\%$ to Great Britain.
• Chesapeake Exports: $42\%$ consisted almost exclusively of tobacco, primarily destined for Great Britain.
• Export Destinations Overall:
  • Great Britain: $55\%$
  • Southern Europe: $17\%$
  • West Indies: $28\%$
• Navigation Acts:
  • A series of laws passed by Parliament during the Restoration (starting from $1660$). The first set was passed after the English Civil War when England lost control of colonial trade to Dutch ships.
  • Purpose: To tighten control on colonial trade, ensuring England benefited (Mercantilism).
  • Target: Primarily aimed at New England, where $80\%$ of shipments went to the West Indies, often via illegal Dutch trade due to numerous harbors.

The Glorious Revolution ($1688$) and Its Impact

• Background:
  • The Restoration ($1660$): Charles II returned to the throne after the Interregnum.
  • Charles II was succeeded by his brother, James II, who was a Catholic and unpopular. He was perceived as trying to assert more control over the colonies.
• The Revolution: In $1688$, the English people, wanting a change, invited William of Orange (a Dutch prince) and his wife Mary to take the throne.
  • Bloodless Revolution: William and Mary sailed across the channel and took the throne in a swift, non-violent manner.
• Key Outcomes:
  • English Bill of Rights ($1689$):
    • Established England as a parliamentary republic, where the monarch shared power with Parliament.
    • Explicitly stated certain rights that the king/queen could not take from citizens.
    • Dramatically weakened the “divine right of kings” concept, shifting authority towards the governed people.
  • Toleration Act ($1689$): Addressed religious conflicts by stipulating that English people would tolerate different religions.

John Locke and the Contract Theory of Government

• Role: Secretary to Lord Ashley, one of the eight proprietors of Carolina, and drafted the articles of government for the Carolinas.
• Two Treatises on Government ($1690$):
  • Core Idea: Outlined the contract theory of government, proposing that government is a formal contract between leaders and the people.
  • Responsibilities: The leader/crown has a responsibility to guarantee certain natural rights to the people: life, liberty, and property. These rights cannot be arbitrarily taken away.
  • Expectations: In return, the leader expects loyalty from the governed.
  • Significance: Became a foundational idea for future political thought, influencing revolutionary movements.

James II's Policies and the Dominion of New England

• James II's Frustration: The Navigation Acts were ineffective, especially in New England, where Puritans were not favored by the Catholic king.
• Revocation of Charters: James II revoked the charters of the New England colonies (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island) and established the Dominion of New England.
  • Goal: To consolidate these into one large colony.
  • Governance: To be run by a single appointed governor, Edmund Andros.
• Edmund Andros's Rule:
  • Objectives: To remove elements of self-governance (e.g., Puritan town meetings, a cornerstone of New England society) and rigorously enforce the Navigation Acts.
  • Unpopularity: Andros was highly unpopular due to his authoritarian style and suppression of self-rule.
• Aftermath of Glorious Revolution in Colonies: When news of the Glorious Revolution reached the colonies, Andros was arrested, and the Dominion of New England was dissolved.
• Colonial Significance: This event contributed to the growing belief among English colonists that the English government did not always have their best interests at heart, laying groundwork for future dissent.

The 1696 Navigation Act and Increased Enforcement

• Context: Despite the Glorious Revolution, England felt it wasn't receiving adequate revenue from the rapidly growing and diversifying colonial economy.
• New Rules:
  • Board of Trade: Abolished the less effective Lords of Trade and created the Board of Trade, explicitly authorized to hire tax collectors for every port.
  • Writs of Assistance: These were blanket search warrants allowing customs officials to board ships and search warehouses at will, even without specific suspicion.
    • Controversy: Colonists (especially in New England) viewed this as a direct violation of the English Bill of Rights, which protected against unreasonable searches and seizures. The English Crown's response was essentially, "You're not in England."
  • Vice-Admiralty Courts (or Admiralty Courts):
    • Function: Courts established to try cases of smuggling.
    • Location: Cases were moved from local colonial courts (e.g., Boston) to courts staffed by English naval officers, often in places like Nova Scotia.
    • Impact: Significantly increased the likelihood of conviction for smugglers, as juries of colonial peers (who might sympathize with smugglers) were removed from the process.

Anglo-French and Anglo-Spanish Wars ($1688$ - $1748$)

• A period of significant international conflict during which England (and its colonies) fought against France and/or Spain.
• King William's War ($1688$ - $1697$):
  • European Name: Nine Years' War.
  • Participants: England vs. France.
  • Colonial Impact: Fought primarily in New England and New France (e.g., near Boston, Schenectady, Montreal, Quebec).
  • Outcome: No significant territory changes or resolutions, leading to colonial frustration.
• Queen Anne's War ($1702$ - $1713$):
  • European Name: War of the Spanish Succession.
  • Participants: England vs. Spain (main colonial opponent).
  • Colonial Impact: Fought predominantly on the southern frontier, particularly Spanish Florida.
  • Outcome: No major territorial changes, but prolonged warfare in the South.
• War of Jenkins' Ear ($1739$ - $1748$):
  • Origin: Named after Captain Robert Jenkins, whose ear was cut off by the Spanish as punishment for allegedly attacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean. Jenkins presented his ear to Parliament, leading to war.
  • Participants: Initially England vs. Spain, later France joined.
  • Colonial Impact: Merged into a larger global conflict.
• King George's War ($1744$ - $1748$):
  • European Name: War of the Austrian Succession.
  • Participants: England vs. France.
  • Colonial Impact: New England colonists, with the English Navy, captured Louisbourg, a major French fortress controlling access to the St. Lawrence River and New France.
  • Outcome: In the peace treaty of $1748$, England controversially returned Louisbourg to France, leading to deep resentment among colonists who had sacrificed much to capture it.

Salutary Neglect (c. $1713$ - $1760$)

• Definition: A term coined by an English Prime Minister describing British policy towards the colonies as one of “wise and salutary neglect.” It meant intentionally lax enforcement of parliamentary laws and regulations.
• Reason: England was preoccupied with fighting numerous wars in Europe and thus had limited resources and time to micromanage colonial affairs.
• Period: Generally from the end of Queen Anne's War ($1713$) until around $1760$.
• Impact on Colonies:
  • The colonies were largely left to manage their own affairs during this time.
  • This period allowed colonists to acquire and develop a strong habit of self-government.
  • By the $1760$s, this habit had solidified into what many colonists perceived as an inherent right to self-governance, setting the stage for future conflicts with Britain when attempts at tighter control were made.