universal empire: china (9/24)
Introduction to Historical Governance
Analytical Approach: The aim is to foster critical and analytical thinking about the contemporary state by examining earlier historical examples.
Continuity of Techniques: Many techniques, institutions, and approaches to governing large populations that were successful in ancient times continue to be effective today.
Human Evolution: The biological evolution of Homo sapiens has been minimal over the past years, suggesting that fundamental human needs, desires, and societal practices remain similar across millennia. Studying history helps understand the present world better.
Importance of Early Persia: The story of early Persia, specifically the Achaemenid dynasty, is crucial because it was an incredibly influential state that successfully governed a vast region and developed institutions that other civilizations sought to imitate.
Persian Legitimacy Elements (Darius):
Divine Sanction: The leader's authority was sanctioned by a god (e.g., Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian god of good, wisdom, light, and creation).
Royal Bloodline: Emphasized a hereditary claim to power.
Symbols: Various symbolic representations of power.
Monumental Architecture: Grand buildings and structures to demonstrate power (e.g., Persepolis).
Public Work Projects: Large-scale infrastructure to benefit and control the population.
Security System: Maintenance of order and defense.
Darius and the Bisitun Inscription: Darius, a king active around BC, ascended the throne after a rebellion and commemorated his victory with a massive rock inscription at Bisitun, considered the 'world's first billboard.' This inscription uniquely combines concepts of political legitimacy, art, and the leader's connection to the divine.
Relevance for Future Leaders: The Persian model provided guidelines for future leaders seeking to establish and maintain their authority by drawing on divine support.
Introduction to Ancient China
Lecture Plan: This session will cover China's political system, society, and economy, leading to a later discussion on culture, philosophy, and religion.
Special Assignment: Packet on Chinese philosophy (Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism) to be read.
Structure of Chinese History: Typically divided into 'dynasties,' akin to presidential reigns, signifying periods of rule by a single family or lineage. Six dynasties will be covered in the semester, with Shang, Zhou, and Qin discussed today.
Chinese Political Legitimacy: The Mandate of Heaven
Contrast with Modern Legitimacy: Unlike the modern concept of popular sovereignty (voting), which is a relatively fresh idea and not universally dominating, ancient Chinese legitimacy was different.
Meaning of 'Heaven': Refers to the cosmic order of things, not an afterlife paradise. It encompasses natural processes like rotating stars, Earth's movement, tides, and natural currents, representing how nature 'wants things to be.'
The Son of Heaven: The emperor is called the Son of Heaven, implying that he is chosen by Heaven to rule. This title bestows divine blessing upon the ruler.
Conditions for the Mandate: The Mandate of Heaven is not unconditional. It is granted to a ruler as long as he governs justly and wisely. If a ruler becomes tyrannical or unable to protect his people (e.g., natural disasters, rebellions, invasions), Heaven would withdraw its mandate.
Loss of Mandate: The loss of the Mandate of Heaven often manifested through natural calamities, famine, or successful rebellions, which were seen as signs that Heaven no longer favored the current dynasty. This then justified the overthrow of the existing ruler and the rise of a new dynasty.
Formation of the Early Chinese State
Early Chinese civilization developed along the Yellow River (Huang He) in the North China Plain, benefitting from its fertile loess soil.
The emergence of organized states was characterized by the establishment of ruling families (dynasties) and centralized authority, moving from tribal societies to complex agricultural societies.
The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors are semi-mythical rulers who are said to have laid the foundations of Chinese civilization, introducing agriculture, writing, and moral governance.
China's Sorrow
The Yellow River (Huang He) is often referred to as 'China's Sorrow' due to its frequent, devastating, and unpredictable floods, which have caused immense loss of life and destroyed crops.
Despite its destructive nature, the river was crucial for the development of early Chinese civilization, providing fertile land and irrigation.
Early efforts to control the Yellow River, such as building dikes and canals, were among the immense public works projects undertaken by various dynasties.
Shang Dynasty ( BC)
The first historically verifiable dynasty in China, established along the Yellow River.
Characterized by its advanced bronze metallurgy, which was used for weapons, chariots, and elaborate ritual vessels.
Society was hierarchical, with a king at the top, supported by a warrior aristocracy, priests, and a large population of commoners and slaves.
Practiced ancestor worship and divination, believing that ancestors could intercede with the supreme deity, Di (or Shangdi).
Anyang: Capital of the Shang
Anyang, located in modern-day Henan province, served as one of the last and most important capitals of the Shang Dynasty.
Archaeological excavations at Anyang have revealed extensive palace foundations, royal tombs, workshops, and ceremonial altars, providing crucial insights into Shang culture and society.
The site is famous for the discovery of numerous oracle bones and bronze artifacts, which are central to understanding Shang religion and political organization.
Oracle Bones
Purpose: Turtle plastrons (bottom shells) and ox scapulae (shoulder blades) used for pyromancy (divination by fire) by Shang kings and diviners.
Process: Questions about future harvests, military campaigns, weather, health, or ancestral advice were carved onto the bones, which were then heated until cracks appeared. The patterns of these cracks were interpreted as divine answers.
Significance: The inscriptions on these bones represent the earliest known form of Chinese writing and are invaluable primary sources for understanding Shang society, beliefs, and history.
Zhou Dynasty ( BC)
The Zhou overthrew the Shang, justifying their rule through the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, claiming the Shang had lost Heaven's favor due to their corruption.
Feudal System: Established a decentralized system of governance, granting control of distant territories to loyal family members and allies, who became feudal lords.
Eastern and Western Zhou: Divided into Western Zhou (when the capital was near present-day Xi'an) and Eastern Zhou (after the capital moved eastward due to invasions), a period characterized by the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, marked by intense political fragmentation and warfare.
Philosophical Flourishing: The Eastern Zhou period saw the emergence of major Chinese philosophical schools, including Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism, in response to the political and social chaos.
Shi Huangdi (Qin Dynasty, ruled BC)
First Emperor of Qin: Born Ying Zheng, he unified China after centuries of warfare among competing states, establishing the Qin Dynasty and proclaiming himself 'Shi Huangdi' (First Emperor).
Centralization: Implemented radical reforms to centralize power, abolishing the feudal system, standardizing weights, measures, currency, and writing across the empire.
Legalism: Governed primarily according to Legalist principles, emphasizing strict laws, harsh punishments, and absolute obedience to the state, aiming for order and stability.
Beginning of the Great Wall(s)
Shi Huangdi ordered the connection and extension of existing defensive walls built by earlier states to create a continuous northern frontier defense against nomadic invaders from the steppe.
While often associated with a single structure, these early walls were an amalgamation of various sections, many of which would later be rebuilt and extended during subsequent dynasties (most notably the Ming Dynasty).
The construction involved massive mobilization of labor, including soldiers, convicts, and peasants.
First Emperor of Qin's Tomb
Location: Located near Xi'an, Shaanxi province.
Terracotta Army: Famous for the vast collection of terracotta soldiers, chariots, and horses buried with him, intended to protect him in the afterlife.
Symbolism: The terracotta army is a testament to the immense power, wealth, and centralized control of the Qin Empire and Shi Huangdi's ambition to maintain his authority even after death.
Unexcavated Tomb: The central tomb mound containing Shi Huangdi's actual burial chamber remains largely unexcavated, with ancient texts describing it as a lavish underground palace featuring rivers of mercury and intricate booby traps.
Shi Huangdi's Cosmic Vision of Universal Empire
Unity and Order: Shi Huangdi envisioned a unified and eternally stable empire, directly ruling 'All Under Heaven' (Tianxia), with himself at its cosmic center.
Imperial Ideology: His actions, from standardizing infrastructure to grand burial, were manifestations of this vision, seeking to solidify imperial power and impose a singular identity across diverse regions.
Quest for Immortality: His obsession with immortality and the construction of his elaborate tomb reflect a desire for eternal rule and a lasting legacy that transcended mortal life.