Biblical Translation Registers, Hermeneutics, and Sociocultural Context

Language Register and Translation Choices

• Definition and Nature of Register:

  • Register refers to the degree of formality or informality with which a text or communication is completed.
  • Translations targeting lower reading levels generally utilize a more informal register to maintain accessibility.
  • Translations targeting higher reading levels tend to adopt a more formal, elevated, or harsh register.
  • Although register can be an abstract or cloudy concept, specific lexical choices illustrate how translators navigate formal versus informal language.

• Use of Contractions (Example: "Can't" vs. "Cannot"):

  • Standard English conversation frequently uses contractions such as "can't", whereas formal or archaic registers deliberately avoid them to convey solemnity, professional dignity, or traditional reverence for sacred text.
  • Occurrence Breakdown across Bible Translations:
  • NOSV: Contains a total count of $0$ occurrences of the word "can't", exclusively employing the uncontracted form "cannot".
  • Common English Bible (CEB): Contains $309$ occurrences of the word "can't", demonstrating a strong preference for common, accessible, modern English syntax.
  • New International Version (NIV): Targets a general adult reading level of $7\text{th}$ to $8\text{th}$ grade and contains $16$ occurrences of "can't", likely escaping the translators' deliberate notice while seeking a natural tone.
  • New Living Translation (NLT): Designed for a lower reading level with a highly conversational register, demonstrating high comfort with contractions like "can't".

• Technical and Theological Terminology (Example: "Atonement"):

  • "Atonement" is a specialized, church-oriented theological term synonymous with reconciliation that is rarely used in daily conversation.
  • Translators manage high-level theological jargon depending on their target audience and register:
  • NRSV: Uses "atonement" $85$ times. The NRSV frequently employs terms on an even higher theological pedestal, such as "expiation" or "propitiation".
  • NIV: Uses "atonement" $102$ times. The NIV deliberately avoids terms like "expiation" and "propitiation", consistently substituting "atonement" instead, leading to a higher word count than the NRSV despite having an overall lower register.
  • NLT: Uses "atonement" $49$ times, reducing technical terminology to maintain a conversational tone and lower the barrier of entry.
  • Common English Bible (CEB): Uses "atonement" $0$ times, replacing technical jargon with expressive descriptive phrases such as "being made right with God".

Generic Masculines and Gender-Inclusive Language

• Generic Masculines in Traditional English:

  • Traditionally, English utilized masculine pronouns (e.g., "he", "him", "his") as generic terms intended to encompass both men and women (e.g., "If anyone wants to be a great student in this class, he should be sure to do all the assigned work").
  • Contemporary English usage has shifted away from generic masculine pronouns, presenting a challenge for biblical translators dealing with underlying Hebrew and Greek generic masculine structures.

• Translation Approaches to Generic Language:

  • Gender-Inclusive Approach (NIV):
  • Replaces generic masculine singular pronouns with inclusive phrases ("the one", "that person") or singular "they".
  • Example (Psalm 1 translation): "Blessed is the one who does not walk in step with the wicked or stand in the way that sinners take or sit in the company of mockers, but whose delight is in the law of the Lord, and who meditates on his law day and night. That person is like a tree planted by streams of water, which yields its fruit in season and whose leaf does not wither. Whatever they do prospers."
  • Generic Masculine Approach (ESV):
  • Retains traditional masculine terminology ("man", "he", "his").
  • Example (Psalm 1 translation): "Blessed is the man who walks not in the counsel of the wicked, nor stands in the way of sinners, nor sits in the seat of scoffers, but his delight is in the law of the Lord, and on his law he meditates day and night. He is like a tree planted by the streams of water that yields its fruit in season, and its leaf does not wither. In all that he does, he prospers."

• Trade-offs and Structural Implications:

  • The ESV maintains a sharp literary contrast between the singular righteous individual ("he") and the plural wicked individuals in surrounding verses.
  • The NIV attempts to preserve singular focus using "that person" and singular "they", but the traditional plural connotation of "they" (which has only gained singular acceptance in standard usage over the past decade or two) can obscure the singular-versus-plural literary dynamic.

Hermeneutical Principles and Historical Distance

• Fundamental Axiom of Interpretation:

  • As stated by Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart in How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: "A text cannot mean what it can never have meant for its original readers and hearers."
  • The Bible was written for modern readers, but it was not written to modern readers.
  • Exegesis requires recognizing historical distance, interpreting passages through the lens of the original audience's understanding, and strictly bounding potential interpretations to what would have been intelligible to those original recipients.

• The Threefold Cultural and Historical Distance:

  • Adapting the literary adage "The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there," the Bible is effectively $3$ times a foreign country:
  1. Foreign Historical Period: Written in ancient historical eras far removed from modern times.
  2. Foreign Geographical Settings: Events take place across ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean regions.
  3. Foreign Languages and Cultures: Expresses ideas through ancient languages (Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek) and cultural mindsets distinct from modern norms.

Historical Context: Philippi and Roman Citizenship

• Historical Background of Philippi:

  • Following the assassination of Julius Caesar, a Roman civil war erupted between Caesar's avengers—generals Octavian (later known as Augustus) and Mark Antony—and Caesar's assassin generals, Brutus and Cassius.
  • A decisive battle took place at Philippi, resulting in the defeat of Brutus and Cassius.
  • To reward their victorious veteran soldiers, Octavian and Mark Antony awarded them Roman citizenship, land, and the right to settle in Philippi.

• Impact on Paul’s Letter to the Philippians:

  • Writing less than $100$ years after the Battle of Philippi, Paul addresses a community whose residents grew up learning their family's proud history of Roman citizenship granted to their grandfathers by Octavian and Mark Antony.
  • When Paul describes opponents as "enemies of the cross" or declares that "our citizenship is in heaven," the Philippian believers understood "enemies" through their history of military conflict and "citizenship" through the immense social prestige and legal privilege of Roman citizenship.

Sociocultural Context: Tamar and the Laodicean Church

• Cultural Expectations in Narrative (Tamar and Judah):

  • In Genesis, Tamar disguises herself as a prostitute to seduce and trick her father-in-law into impregnating her.
  • Upon discovering her pregnancy, her father-in-law prepares to execute her for unchastity until she presents his personal items, proving he is the father.
  • Her father-in-law publicly declares, "She is righteous," highlighting how ancient Near Eastern sociocultural norms and family duties governed legal and moral righteousness in ways radically distinct from modern expectations.

• Geographical and Sociocultural Context of Laodicea (Revelation 3):

  • Address to the Church in Laodicea: "You are lukewarm; I wish you were either hot or cold, but because you are lukewarm, I am about to spit you out of my mouth."
  • Traditional Misinterpretation: Interprets "hot" as spiritually passionate, "cold" as completely ungodly/hostile, and "lukewarm" as half-hearted, concluding that being spiritually cold is preferable to being lukewarm.
  • Actual Historical Context:
  • Laodicea lacked a natural local water supply and relied on aqueducts from two neighboring sources:
    1. Thermal hot springs from Hierapolis (beneficial for healing and relaxation).
    2. Cold snow-melt water (refreshing and fit for drinking).
  • By the time cold water flowed through miles of aqueducts into Laodicea, it became lukewarm, tepid, and unpalatable runoff.
  • Meaning: Both hot water and cold water serve useful, beneficial purposes. Lukewarm water serves no useful purpose whatsoever; the passage critiques the church's total lack of practical utility.

• Understanding Audience Worldview:

  • Reading Genesis $1$ and $2$ requires evaluating ancient Near Eastern creation accounts known to the original audience to accurately grasp its theological assertions.

Classroom Group Discussion Instructions and Logistics

• Group Discussion Requirements:

  • Group discussions take place $8$, $9$, or $10$ times throughout the semester whenever noted on the syllabus.
  • Required Setup Steps for Student Groups:
  1. Select one member to record the names of all group members in an email and send it to the instructor.
  2. Create a unique group name or mascot (e.g., Lions, Penguins) to help members remember their assigned group identity.
  3. Accept assigned group numbers determined by sequential count-off ($1$ through $5$) to ensure equal group sizes across the classroom.

• In-Class Count-Off Procedure:

  • Students count off sequentially from $1$ to $5$ ($1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...$) and physically relocate into $5$ designated group seating areas around the room.

Student Group Formation and Mascot Selection

• Group Member Introductions:

  • Group members introduce themselves: Ben, Julia, and Addie.
  • Student discussion regarding name spellings (e.g., unusual spellings such as Bauer spelled without a 'w', or Connor spelled with a 'k').
  • Ben reveals he is left-handed, while all other group members are right-handed.
  • Group members note that all members share brown/brunette hair.

• Group Name and Mascot Brainstorming:

  • The group seeks a common trait or theme to establish a mascot, reflecting their university identity (Bruins).
  • The group considers various fictional bears:
  • Winnie the Pooh
  • Paddington
  • Baloo (from The Jungle Book)
  • Corduroy
  • Yogi Bear
  • Care Bears
  • Final Consensus: The group selects "Fictional Bears" (with reference to Yogi Bear / The Yogis) as their official group mascot name.