Study Notes on Affirmative Action

Introduction to Affirmative Action in Higher Education

  • Definition: Affirmative action policies in higher education focus on increasing opportunities for minorities, particularly in admissions processes.

  • Historical Context: These policies have been in place since the early 1960s, facing scrutiny and debate over their legality and fairness.

Authors' Backgrounds

  • Dorothy F. Garrison-Wade

    • Current Position: Ph.D. candidate and research assistant at Colorado State University

    • Research Interests: Transition of students with disabilities to higher education, alternate assessment for students with disabilities, accountability in public education, and retention of African-American teachers.

    • Educational Credentials:

    • B.A. in Intermediate Education from University of North Carolina at Wilmington

    • Master's degrees in Human Resources Development from Webster University and in Educational Leadership from University of Phoenix.

  • Dr. Chance W. Lewis

    • Current Position: Assistant professor at Colorado State University

    • Research Interests: Recruitment of African-American teachers in K-12 and bridging the digital divide for African-American students.

    • Educational Credentials:

    • Bachelor’s in Business Education from Southern University (LA)

    • Master’s in Education Administration/Supervision from Southern University

    • Ph.D. in Educational Leadership from Colorado State University

    • Experience: Taught grades 9-12 and was awarded Teacher of the Year at Glen Oaks High School in 1997.

Historical Background of Affirmative Action

  • Objective of Affirmative Action: Improving opportunities for minorities to progress in society, particularly in education. Initially established to rectify historical disparities and promote educational diversity.

  • Legality Issues: Affirmative action policies have faced various legal challenges resulting in a number of states discontinuing these policies.

  • Key Court Decisions:

    • Brown v. Board of Education (1954):

    • Ruling: Segregated educational facilities are unconstitutional, violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

    • Significance: Paved the way for policies aimed at desegregation and equality in education.

    • Regents of University of California v. Bakke (1978):

    • Issue: Allan Bakke claimed he was denied admission to a medical school due to race-based policies.

    • Ruling: Racial quotas in admissions were unconstitutional, yet race could be considered as one of several factors in admissions.

    • Grutter v. Bollinger (2003):

    • Ruling: Affirmed use of race in law school admissions for diversity.

    • Gratz v. Bollinger (2003):

    • Ruling: Invalidated an undergraduate admission policy awarding points for race.

Overview of Affirmative Action Policies

  • Primary Goals:

    1. Improve educational opportunities for minorities by incorporating race as a consideration in admissions.

    2. Address past discrimination and foster educational diversity.

  • Compelling Interest: This term refers to justifications for race-conscious policies, including:

    • Remedial Interests: Addressing past injustices.

    • Non-Remedial Interests: Promoting diversity, reducing racial isolation, and supporting educational research.

Outcomes and Implications of Affirmative Action

  • Statistics on Enrollment:

    • 1965 Enrollment: 4.8% of undergraduate, 1% of law, and 2% of medical students were African American.

    • 1998 Report: 11% of undergraduate students were Black; 9% were Hispanic.

  • Anticipated Outcomes:

    • Improvement in educational opportunities for all, increased diversity, and enhanced learning experiences.

    • Faculty Survey Findings: 90% of faculty did not believe diversity negatively affected student quality.

  • Unanticipated Outcomes:

    • Emergence of claims regarding reverse discrimination and arguments that affirmative action undermines standards.

Ongoing Challenges with Affirmative Action

  • Public Perception: Despite evidence supporting the benefits of diversity, debates continue regarding the appropriateness of affirmative action and allegations of reverse discrimination.

  • Legal Challenges: Many states have banned affirmative action, while others still support it. Notable states include California, Washington, and Florida.

Recommendations for Future Research

  1. Empirical Research: Study the impact of affirmative action on educational settings to ensure effective implementation.

  2. Longitudinal Studies: Examine the post-college success rates of minorities admitted through affirmative action versus their counterparts.

  3. Qualitative Research: Conduct interviews and focus groups with admissions officials to better understand diversity strategies.

  4. Student Perspectives: Assess views from both minority and white students on affirmative action policies.

  5. Comparative Studies: Evaluate race-blind admissions against affirmative-action policies.

  6. Examine Race-Neutral Alternatives: Research programs like state percentage policies that aim to increase diversity without considering race directly.

References

  • Alger, J. et al. (2000) - Research on diversity in college classrooms.

  • Bowen, W. G., and Bok, D. (1998) - Insights on race considerations in college admissions from a long-term study.

  • Brunner, B. - Timeline of Affirmative Action Milestones.

  • National Center for Education Statistics (various publications) - Statistical data on diversity in education.

  • Relevant Supreme Court Cases - Key legal precedents regarding affirmative action policies.