Islamic Architecture in the Middle East and Spain: Hypostyle Mosques and Political Statements

Geographical Overview of Islamic Architecture

• Early Islamic Religious Buildings: The earliest surviving examples are found in Saudi Arabia, where the original versions were located.
• Eastern Mediterranean:
  • Dome of the Rock: Located in Jerusalem.
  • Great Mosque: Located in Damascus.
• Later Developments and Diverse Locations (Geographical Progression):
  • Iraq: Baghdad (capital) and the adjacent city of Samarra.
  • Egypt: Cairo.
  • Spain: Cordoba (representing the Western Mediterranean).
  • Iran: Isfahan.
  • Modern-day Turkey: Adirne, and Istanbul (historically Constantinople under the Byzantines).

Classification of Mosques: Hypostyle Mosques

• Architectural Groupings: Many architectural historians divide mosques of this subsequent period into three main groups.
• First Type: Hypostyle Mosques:
  • Etymology: The term "hypostyle" originates from two Greek words, literally meaning "under column." This refers to the architectural structure where the roof is supported by numerous columns.
  • Characteristics: These mosques are characterized by featuring many columns.
  • Geographical Distribution: They are predominantly found in regions where Arabic was the dominant language, including the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Spain.

The Abbasid Caliphate: Baghdad and Samarra

• The Old City of Baghdad:

  • Context: Baghdad served as the central hub of the Islamic world and was the newly established capital of the second caliphate, the Abbasids.
  • Founding: The city was founded in $762$ CE. This marked a shift in power, as the Umayyad capital had previously been in Damascus, moving to Baghdad under the Abbasids.
  • Location: Situated on the Tigris River, near the Euphrates River. These rivers were crucial to the region, creating a lush landscape.
  • Design: Allegedly designed by the caliph Al Mansur (the year of founding is more significant than the name). The city was conceived to be unparalleled, a significant feat considering Iraq's millennia-old history of urban civilizations (e.g., ancient Babylonians, Assyrians, Neo-Babylonians, Akkad, Sumer).
  • Scale: Baghdad was defined by its immense scale, built in a circular form with an outer wall having a $4$ mile diameter.
  • Architectural Legacy: Importantly, no original Abbasid religious architecture survives in Baghdad itself.

• The Great Mosque of Samarra:

  • Location and Context: To understand Abbasid religious architecture, one must look north to Samarra. This mosque was built in the mid-$800$s during a brief period when Samarra temporarily served as the Abbasid capital before the capital returned to Baghdad.
  • Immense Complex: The mosque was an enormous structure, measuring $800$ feet long and $500$ feet wide.
  • Layout:
    • Saḥn: A central clear area that would have served as the courtyard.
    • Ḥaram: The prayer hall, located on one side.
    • Piers: The stubbly remains seen today indicate the locations of piers (supports made from brick) that would have held up a flat roof. Most of the original supports do not survive; only the exterior wall remains.
    • Qibla Wall and Miḥrāb: At one end of the building was the qibla wall, containing a projecting niche known as the miḥrāb (prayer niche).
    • Minaret: At the opposite end, a large tower served as the minaret.
  • Miḥrāb Details: Featured a pointed arch, marble columns, and scallop-shaped capitals.
  • Minaret Design: Characterized by a spiraling walkway, bearing a noticeable resemblance to the famous ziggurats of ancient civilizations in the region. Scholars debate whether this resemblance was intentional.
  • Significance: The mosque demonstrates the monumental scale at which the Abbasid rulers were capable of building.

Rival Caliphates: Architecture as a Political Tool

• Context: Abbasid Decline and Rivalries: By around the year $900$ CE, the Abbasid caliphate experienced significant pressure, both internal and external, leading to a considerable reduction in its controlled territory.
• Emergence of Rival Caliphates: This period saw the rise of two distinct rival caliphates, each challenging Abbasid authority:
  1. The Fatimids: Established in Egypt, controlling a region indicated by a purple line. They declared their independence and formed their own caliphate in $909$ CE.
  2. The Cordoban Umayyads: Based in Spain (al-Andalus), controlling the area marked by an orange line. They followed suit, declaring their own caliphate in $929$ CE.
• Political Use of Architecture: These rival caliphates used the construction of new mosques in their capital cities as a means to advertise and legitimize their claims to power. Religious architecture, much like Christian churches of the period, served as a powerful political instrument.

The Mosque of Al-Azhar, Cairo (Fatimids)

• Founding: Established in $970$ CE in Cairo, chosen as the capital for the new Fatimid caliphate in the late $900$s. A university was also founded on the site around the same time.
• Modifications: The mosque has undergone heavy modifications over centuries, so initial external appearance is less relevant.
• Hypostyle Plan: The floor plan showcases a classic hypostyle mosque structure:
  • A central saḥn (courtyard).
  • A ḥaram (prayer hall) on one side.
  • Covered areas known as porticos on other sides.
  • The ḥaram comprised several aisles, each featuring nine bays.
  • The qibla wall was at one end, containing the miḥrāb (prayer niche).
• Architectural Dialogue and Political Legitimacy:
  • Reference to Umayyad Architecture: The Fatimids deliberately incorporated architectural elements that referenced the famous Umayyad Dome of the Rock.
  • Shared Features with the Dome of the Rock:
    • Spoliated Columns: Columns of varied stone, finish, and slightly different dimensions were used, along with diverse capitals. This practice of using older, diverse columns was a hallmark of earlier Umayyad buildings.
    • Pointed Arches: Another features consistent with Umayyad design.
    • Vine-like Decoration and Inscriptions: Arabic inscriptions and vegetal motifs were present. Unlike the Dome of the Rock's mosaics, these were made of stucco at Al-Azhar (though parts were originally gilded, implying a richer color palette).
  • Significance: By echoing the architectural language of the prestigious Umayyad caliphate, the Fatimids aimed to assert their own legitimate claim to power against both the Abbasids and the legacy of earlier Islamic rule.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba (Cordoban Umayyads)

• Development: Located in Cordoba, the capital of the Cordoban Umayyads. The mosque underwent continuous expansion from $785$ CE throughout the $900$s.
• Current State and Contested History:
  • An aerial view today shows its two main components: the saḥn (courtyard) and the ḥaram (covered prayer hall).
  • Christian Church Inside: A cruciform church is noticeably situated right in the middle of the ḥaram. This was constructed in the $13$th century after Christian armies reconquered Spain, demonstrating the complex and contested history of many such sites. The church was later rebuilt at various points.
• Hypostyle Plan: The interior of the ḥaram is a classic hypostyle plan, characterized by a vast number of columns that give it the appearance of an architectural "forest." The number of columns increased with each expansion.
• Architectural Dialogue and Political Legitimacy:
  • Multilayered References: The Great Mosque of Cordoba consciously referred not only to famous Umayyad buildings like the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus but also to local Spanish architectural traditions.
  • Shared Features with Umayyad Buildings:
    • Spoliated Columns: Similar to those found in Umayyad structures.
    • Banded Arches: Arches featured alternating colors of stone, a decorative technique also seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus.
    • Rich Decoration: Extensive use of scrollwork and Arabic inscriptions, particularly prominent in the miḥrāb and the maqṣūra (the screened-off area near the miḥrāb).
    • Stacked Arches: As seen in the Great Mosque in Damascus.
  • Local Spanish References:
    • Stone and Brick Combination: The use of both stone and brick in alternating patterns echoed the construction of ancient Roman aqueducts found throughout Spain.
    • Horseshoe Arches: The distinctive shape of the lower arches, curving back in on themselves towards the bottom, is known as a horseshoe arch. This form was very common in Visigothic architecture in Spain (the Visigoths were the rulers before the Umayyads conquered after the Romans).
  • Significance: The arches and overall design of the Ḥaram in Cordoba served multiple purposes: to evoke prestigious Roman and Visigothic heritage, thereby connecting with local traditions, and to recall renowned Umayyad buildings at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, reinforcing the Cordoban Umayyads' claim to legitimate authority against the Abbasids.

Conclusion: Buildings as Communicators

• Architectural Language: Earlier Umayyad caliphs (e.g., with the Dome of the Rock and Great Mosque of Damascus) used architecture to speak the "language" of the Roman or Byzantine world, incorporating elements like marble, mosaics, columns, arches, and domes.
• Later References: Centuries later, the Fatimids and Cordoban Umayyads similarly employed architecture, but their architectural "language" referenced the Umayyad buildings themselves. This was a strategic move to establish and reinforce their claims to fame and legitimacy against the dominant Abbasid caliphate.
• Core Principle: Buildings possess the ability to "talk" to one another, referring back to earlier constructions. This serves to remind observers of the glory and cultural achievements associated with the civilizations and rulers who created those foundational structures.